Biotechnology Trends and Applications

Biotechnology Trends and Applications is an important topic in Science and Technology that explores the latest advancements and practical uses of biotechnology in medicine, agriculture, industry, and environmental management. It highlights how modern biotechnological innovations are transforming healthcare, food production, and sustainable development. Under this topic, we will study various emerging trends, applications, and technological developments in the field of biotechnology.

Cloning

Cloning = Process of producing genetically identical copies of organisms, cells, or DNA fragments.
Types of Cloning
- DNA Cloning (Molecular Cloning)
  - Copying specific DNA fragments using vectors (plasmids, phages).
  - Used in recombinant DNA technology, gene sequencing, and protein production.
- Reproductive Cloning
  - Produces a whole organism genetically identical to the donor.
  - Technique: Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer (SCNT).
  - Example: Dolly the sheep.
- Therapeutic Cloning (Stem Cell Cloning)
  - Produces embryonic stem cells genetically identical to the donor.
  - Used for regenerative medicine, tissue repair, and disease modeling.

Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer (SCNT) Technology

SCNT technology, also known as “cloning by nuclear transfer,” is a technique used in the field of reproductive cloning.
Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer (SCNT) is a cloning technique where the nucleus of a somatic (body) cell is transferred into an enucleated egg cell to create a genetically identical organism (clone) or to generate patient-specific stem cells.
Process Steps
- Somatic Cell Selection: An adult cell (skin, hair, nail, muscle cell etc.) is chosen rather than a germ cell (sperm or egg) and its nucleus is extracted.
- Enucleation: Take an egg cell from a donor and remove the nucleus from the egg/oocyte.
- Nuclear Transfer: The nucleus of the somatic cell is inserted into the enucleated egg.
- Activation: The egg is stimulated (via electric pulse or chemicals) to start dividing.
- Embryo Formation: The cell develops into a blastocyst – an early-stage embryo.
- Outcome:
  - For Reproductive Cloning: Embryo is implanted into a surrogate.
  - For Therapeutic Cloning (Stem Cell Therapy): Embryo is used to derive embryonic stem cells.

Applications of SCNT

Field	Use Case
Cloning (not plant breeding)	Dolly the sheep (1996) – first mammal cloned using SCNT.
Stem Cell Research	Creation of patient-specific embryonic stem cells.
Disease Modeling	Studying genetic diseases like Parkinson’s or Alzheimer’s.
Regenerative Medicine	Potential for tissue repair and organ regeneration.
Drug Testing	Personalized cell lines for pharmaceutical testing.

Key Milestones SCNT Technology in India

Year	Milestone	Institution
2009	Samrupa – World’s first cloned riverine buffalo calf (Murrah breed).Garima – Second Cloned Buffalo Calf of the World.Using Handguided Cloning Technique.	ICAR–NDRI, Karnal
2023	Ganga – India’s first cloned cow (Gir breed).	ICAR–NDRI, Karnal

Innovations

Handmade Cloning (HMC): A simplified SCNT method developed in India to improve efficiency and reduce cost.
Ovum Pick-Up (OPU): Non-invasive technique used to extract oocytes from cows without harming them.
Tail Cell Cloning: Somatic cells from cow tail used for cloning Gir breed cattle.

Unified Genomic Chip

Developed by Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying (DAHD), Ministry of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries.
For genomic profiling and evaluation of Indian cattle breeds.
Two versions: ‘Gau Chip’ for cattle and the ‘Mahish Chip’ for buffalo.

Raj-Sheetal

Feature	Details
What is it?	India’s first horse foal born through cryopreserved embryo transfer (2019).
Technique Used	Embryo vitrification + cryopreservation + embryo transfer.
Genetic Origin	Fertilized embryo from Marwari × Zanskari horses.
Developed By	ICAR – National Research Centre on Equines (NRCE), Bikaner, Rajasthan.
Surrogate Used	Embryo implanted into synchronized surrogate mare
Not a Clone	No nuclear transfer; embryo created via natural fertilization.

Surrogacy

Surrogacy = Arrangement where a woman agrees to bear a child for another individual/couple.
Surrogacy is a technique based on embryo implantation.
In this process, the male sperm is fertilized with the female egg (ovum).
During fertilization, the genetic material from both parents fuses.
The fused (fertilized) cell is kept in the laboratory (Lab) until it develops into an embryo.
The embryo is then implanted into the uterus of a surrogate mother.
Two types:
- Altruistic Surrogacy → Surrogate compensated only for medical and essential expenses.
- Commercial Surrogacy → Surrogate paid beyond medical needs (now banned in India).

Legal Framework

Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021
- Permits only altruistic surrogacy.
- Bans commercial surrogacy to prevent exploitation.
- Eligibility:
  - Only Indian married couples (man 21-55 years, woman 23-50 years) with proven infertility.
  - Widows/divorcees (age 35-45) also eligible.
  - Foreign nationals, NRIs, single parents, live-in couples, LGBTQ+ couples excluded.
- Surrogate mother:
  - Must be a married woman (25-35 years) with at least one child of her own.
  - Can act as surrogate only once in her lifetime.
- Penalties: Up to 10 years imprisonment + fine for violations.
Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) Act, 2021
- Regulates IVF clinics, gamete donation, and ART procedures.
- Works in tandem with Surrogacy Act.

Mitochondrial Donation Treatment (Three Parent Baby)

Aspect	Details
What is MDT?	Mitochondrial Donation Treatment (MDT) enables conception using DNA from three people – biological parents + mitochondrial donor.
Purpose	Prevents transmission of mitochondrial diseases from mother to child by replacing diseased mitochondria with healthy donor mitochondria.
Process	Involves IVF (in vitro fertilization) combining:Nuclear DNA from biological parentsMitochondrial DNA from healthy donor.
Key Methods	Pronuclear Transfer (PNT) – Transfers pronuclei from fertilized egg to donor egg with healthy mitochondria.Spindle Transfer (MST) – Transfers spindle apparatus (chromosomes) from mother’s egg to donor egg before fertilization.
Significance	A Jordanian boy born in Mexico (2016) → World’s first “three-parent baby”.First successful birth in UK using this method (2023). Offers solution for families affected by mitochondrial diseases (e.g., Leigh syndrome, MELAS).
Ethical Concerns	Controversial due to genetic modification implications.
India	India has not yet approved MDT for clinical use, but research interest is growing in reproductive biotech and mitochondrial genomics.

MDT (Three-Parent Baby)

Replaces diseased mitochondria → Prevents mitochondrial diseases → Uses parental nuclear DNA + donor mitochondria.

Mitochondrial DNA (Mt DNA)

Mt DNA comes only from the mother.
Mitochondrial DNA is more prone to mutations compared to nuclear DNA. This is because mitochondria are exposed to free radicals generated during energy production, which can damage DNA.

Designer Baby

A designer baby refers to a human embryo that has been genetically modified, typically using techniques like CRISPR-Cas9, to influence traits such as appearance, intelligence, or disease predisposition.
The Chinese scientist modified the CCR5 gene on the embryonic cells of the couple to make them resistant to the HIV virus (CCR5 is a gene that codes for receptors in our immune cells which HIV uses like a gateway to get inside the cell).
Recently, in controversial Epstein files there is reference of designer babies.

Stem Cells

Cells with the unique ability to develop into specialised cell types in the body.
They serve as a sort of internal repair system, dividing essentially without limit to replenish other cells as long as the person or animal is still alive.
Stem cells can be derived from various sources, including humans, plants, and even certain invertebrates, not just mammals.
India’s first Embryo Bank – Chennai.

Types of Stem Cells

Type	Description	Example
Totipotent	Can develop into all cell types + extraembryonic tissues (placenta, umbilical cord)	Only found in fertilised egg (zygote)
Pluripotent	Into most cell types, but NOT in extraembryonic tissues	Embryo, Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs)
Multipotent	Into some cell types (limited)	Umbilical cord (Hematopoietic stem cells) → Blood cells, Mesenchymal stem cells → Bone, cartilage, fat cells.
Oligopotent	Into few cell types	Bone marrow cells
Unipotent	Can only renew themselves and differentiate into one specific cell type.	Skin stem cells → New skin cells.

Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPS Cells)

Definition: Pluripotent stem cells generated by reprogramming adult somatic cells.
Reprogramming Process: Introduction of four Yamanaka factors → c-Myc, Klf4, Oct4, Sox2.
- Awarded Nobel Prize in 2012.
Applications:
- Regenerative medicine (tissue engineering, organ transplantation).
- Drug development
- Studying diseases at cellular level (disease modelling).
Key Advantage
- Derived from patient’s own cells → Avoid use of embryonic cells and risk of immune rejection.
Indian Regulatory Framework: National Guidelines for Stem Cell Research (NGSCR) 2017
- Only bone marrow transplant or hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for blood disorders (e.g., blood cancers, thalassemia) permitted.
- Prohibited Practices
  - Germline Gene Therapy → Alters DNA in eggs/sperms → Heritable changes → Banned (Ethical & safety concerns).
  - Therapeutic Cloning → Creating embryos to extract stem cells → Prohibited (only surplus IVF embryos allowed for research up to 14 days).
  - Gene Therapy for All Genetic Diseases → Allowed only in approved clinical trials (ICMR, DBT, Ethics Committee).

Stem Cell Therapy

Use of stem cells to grow healthy adult cells in the lab to replace damaged, defective, or degraded adult cells in the body.
Applications
- Neurological Disorders: Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s (Neurons don’t multiply).
- Organ Damage: Accidents, aging, etc.
- Blood Disorders: Sickle cell anemia, beta thalassemia.
Treatment methods:
- Stem cell transplantation from a healthy donor
- Make iPS cells and grow healthy adult cells
- Gene-edited stem cells from one’s own body.

Stem cell therapy in Type 1 Diabetes (T1D)

A woman in China regained insulin production after stem cell therapy.
Technique Used: Pluripotent stem cells reprogrammed into insulin-producing cells (similar to the ones found in a healthy pancreas).
Process: Pre-programmed cells transplanted into patient → Start producing insulin → Regulate glucose.
Significance: Potential game-changer in T1D treatment by reversing disease and reducing dependence on insulin injections.

CAR (Chimeric antigen receptor) – T Cell Therapy

CAR T-cell therapy is a cell-based gene therapy which involves genetically modifying our immune cells called T-cells to help them attack cancer cells.
T-cells taken from patient’s blood → CAR gene inserted → CAR T-Cells infused in blood.
Therapy is called ‘living drug’ – it uses live cells.

NexCAR19 : India’s own CAR-T cell therapy

Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation (CDSCO) has granted market authorisation/ approval for NexCAR19. With this India has its indigenous CAR-T and gene therapy platform.
To target cancer cells that carry CD19 protein.
NexCar19 is developed indigenously by ImmunoACT (a company incubated at IIT Bombay).

Organ on Chip Technology

OoC is a micro-engineered device that mimics the structure and function of human organs for drug testing, disease modelling, and biomedical research.

RNA Editing

Cell synthesises messenger RNA (mRNA) using instructions in DNA (Transcription).
Cell then ‘reads’ instructions from the mRNA to make functional proteins.
During this process of transcription, the cell may make mistakes in the mRNA’s sequence and based on it produce faulty proteins.
Many of these proteins have been known to cause debilitating disorders. (E.g. Muscular dystrophy)
RNA editing allows scientists to fix mistakes in the mRNA after the cell has synthesised it but before the cell reads it to make the proteins.

Gene Silencing

Gene silencing = Biological process where the expression of a gene is suppressed or reduced, preventing production of its protein.
Unlike Gene Knockout (which permanently deletes a gene), Gene Silencing is a Gene Knockdown mechanism – it reduces gene expression (often by 70% or more) without altering the underlying DNA sequence.
It is a natural regulatory mechanism but can also be induced artificially for research or therapy.
Types & Mechanisms: DNA methylation, histone modification, Antisense Oligonucleotides (ASOs), and RNA‑mediated mechanisms such as RNA interference.
Applications
- Medicine:
  - Treatment of rare diseases or genetic disorders (e.g., Huntington’s disease, muscular dystrophy).
  - Cancer therapy by silencing oncogenes.
  - Antiviral therapies (HIV, Hepatitis).
  - FDA-approved therapies:
    - Patisiran (RNAi drug) for hereditary transthyretin amyloidosis.
    - Givosiran for acute hepatic porphyria.
- Agriculture:
  - Developing pest-resistant and stress-tolerant crops.
  - Nutritional Enhancement: Reducing allergens (e.g., gluten in wheat) or toxins (e.g., nicotine in tobacco, caffeine in coffee).
  - Shelf-life Extension: The Flavr Savr Tomato (first GM food) used antisense technology to silence the gene responsible for fruit softening.

RNA interference (RNAi) Technology

RNAi disrupts the production of harmful proteins by intercepting and incapacitating mRNA transcripts before they make it to ribosomes. This prevents the corresponding proteins from being made.
Used for controlling gene expression, gene-silencing.
RNAi → Gene silencing without DNA changes.

Biofuel

Any hydrocarbon fuel that is produced from an organic matter (living or once living material) in a short period of time (days, weeks, or even months) is considered a biofuel.
Biofuels may be solid, liquid or gaseous in nature.
CRISPR is used to genetically modify microbes like yeast to improve its efficiency of fermentation and ethanol production at a faster rate.
Major Feedstocks → Sugarcane, maize, rice straw, bagasse, used cooking oil, municipal solid waste.

Types of Biofuels (By Generation)

Gen.	Source Material	Examples	Key Features
1st Gen	Edible crops (sugarcane, corn, soybean)	Bioethanol, Biodiesel	Food vs fuel conflict; limited yield
2nd Gen	Non-edible biomass, agri waste	Cellulosic ethanol, bio-oil	Uses crop residue, stubble, forestry waste
3rd Gen	Algae, microbes	Algal biodiesel, biohydrogen	High yield, low land use
4th Gen	Genetically engineered organisms (GE Algae)	Synthetic biofuels	Carbon-negative potential

Biofuel Development in India

India → 3rd largest biofuel producer globally.
Asia’s first 2G ethanol refinery: Panipat, Haryana (IOCL).
- Feedstock – rice straw.
Ethanol Blended Petrol (EBP) Programme
- Original Goal: 20% ethanol blending in petrol (E20) by 2030
- Revised Goal: Advanced to 2025 due to rapid progress.
- Current Status (2025): March 2025 → 20% target achieved.

Policy Support for Biofuel in India

National Bio-Energy Programme (2021–2026)
- Launched by Ministry of New & Renewable Energy (MNRE) with ₹858 crore outlay.
- Aims to unify and strengthen India’s bioenergy ecosystem – including biogas, biomass power, and advanced biofuels.
- Sub-schemes:
  - Waste to Energy (Urban, industrial, and agricultural waste)
  - Biomass Programme (Power generation from crop residue, bagasse)
  - Biogas Programme (Small and large-scale biogas plants).
SATAT Scheme (Sustainable Alternative Towards Affordable Transportation)
- Launched in October 2018 by Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas (MoPNG).
- Promotes production and use of Compressed Biogas (CBG) from waste biomass.
- Target: 15 million tonnes of CBG/year from 5000 plants
- Feedstock: Agricultural residue, cattle dung, municipal solid waste.
- Oil PSUs (IOCL, BPCL, HPCL, GAIL, IGL) procure CBG at govt fixed price (₹52–54/kg).
PM JI-VAN Yojana (Jaiv Indhan Vatavaran Anukool Fasal Awashesh Nivaran)
- Launched in 2019 by MoP&NG to promote 2nd Generation (2G) ethanol from non-food biomass → lignocellulosic feedstock (e.g., paddy straw, bagasse, forest residue).
- Implementation Agency: Centre for High Technology (CHT), a technical body under the aegis of MoP&NG.
- Viability Gap Funding (VGF) for 2G ethanol plants
- First 2G ethanol plant inaugurated in Panipat (2022) by Indian Oil.
- Extended till 2028–29 to attract more investment.

Drop-in Fuel

A fuel fully compatible with existing petroleum infrastructure → Do not require changes in vehicle technology or fueling systems.

Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR)

AMR occurs when bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites evolve over time and no longer respond to antimicrobials (such as antibiotics, antivirals and antimalarials).
WHO has declared AMR as one of the top 10 global public health threats facing humanity.
Causes of AMR:
- Over prescription and unregulated use of antibiotics
- Adding excessive antibiotics to agricultural feed.
- Poor hygiene etc.

Efforts to Control AMR

Steps by WHO against AMR	Steps by India
Global Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance.	National Action Plan on containment of Antimicrobial Resistance (NAP-AMR), 2017.
AWaRe (Access, Watch, Reserve) Tool: To monitor and manage the use of antibiotics.	Delhi and Chennai Declaration on AMR
Global Antimicrobial Resistance and Use Surveillance System (GLASS).	Red Line Campaign on Antibiotics (MoH&FW). → Urging people not to use medicines marked with a red vertical line, including antibiotics, without a doctor’s prescription.
	Schedule H1 to the Drugs and Cosmetics Act 1940.
	National One Health MissionPrime Minister’s Science, Technology, and Innovation Advisory Council (PM-STIAC) in 2022.Aim : coordinate across ministries in achieving overall pandemic preparedness and integrated disease control against priority diseases of both human and animal sectors.

Biofilm

Thin layer of microorganisms (mainly bacteria) that forms on various surfaces (like medical implants, kitchen counters, food and food-processing surfaces, contact lenses, human and animal tissue) and exhibits antimicrobial resistance.
Significance
- Major cause of chronic infections and contamination in medical, industrial, and food sectors.
- Calls for innovative strategies to prevent and control biofilm formation.

Nafithromycin

India’s first Indigenous antibiotic.

Concept of One Health

One Health is an approach that recognises that the health of people is closely connected to the health of animals and our shared environment.
One Health is a collaborative, multi-sectoral, and transdisciplinary approach that recognizes:

“The health of humans, animals, and ecosystems is interconnected and interdependent.”

It aims to prevent, detect, and respond to health threats at the interface of people, animals, and the environment, especially zoonotic diseases, antimicrobial resistance (AMR), and food safety.

Core Components

Domain	Examples of Health Linkages
Human Health	COVID-19, tuberculosis, foodborne illnesses
Animal Health	Avian flu, rabies, brucellosis, antimicrobial misuse
Environmental Health	Deforestation, climate change, water contamination

One Health in India: Recent Developments

National One Health Mission
- Inter-ministerial initiative approved by Prime Minister’s Science, Technology, and Innovation Advisory Council (PM-STIAC) in 2022.
- Works with ICMR, ICAR, MoEFCC, MoHFW, and state governments.
- Implementing Agency: Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR).
- Objective: To coordinate, support, and integrate all One Health activities in India and fill gaps through a cross-ministerial approach.
- Focuses on epidemic preparedness, zoonotic disease surveillance, and interdisciplinary research.
- Governance Structure
  - Executive Committee:
    - Chairman: Health Minister.
    - Vice-Chair: Principal Scientific Advisor (PSA) to GoI.
  - Scientific Steering Committee
    - Chairman: Principal Scientific Advisor (PSA) to GoI.
- The government launched the “Animal Pandemic Preparedness Initiative (APPI)” as well as the World Bank-funded Animal Health System Support for One Health (AHSSOH) project under the aegis of the National One Health Mission.
One Health Conclave 2025 held in Meghalaya to strengthen regional and global collaboration.
ICMR & ICAR collaborating on AMR in poultry and livestock.
Use of AI and predictive analytics for outbreak forecasting and zoonotic mapping.

Global Context

WHO, FAO, UNEP, and WOAH formed the Quadripartite One Health Collaboration.
- One Health High-Level Expert Panel (OHHLEP) guides global policy → scientific and strategic advisory group to the Quadripartite organizations.
- One Health Joint Plan of Action (2022-2026).
COVID-19 pandemic accelerated adoption of ‘One Health’ principles worldwide.

Drugs/Pharmaceuticals

Generic drugs are chemically identical to the original branded drug and, as such, cost significantly less because they don’t require much testing.
However biosimilars are made from living organisms, and don’t contain identical ingredients to their name-brand counterparts, they still require some testing. So, they cost more than generics, but less than the branded biologic.

Biosimilars vs Generics

Feature	Biosimilars	Generics
Source	Generally made from natural or living sources.	Generally made from chemicals
Production Process	Require a specialized process to produce	Have a simpler process to copy
Similarity	Highly similar to the reference biologic but not an exact copy.	Chemically identical to brand-name drug
Cost	Usually less expensive than original biologics	80–85% cheaper than brand-name drug

Initiatives of Pharma Sector

National Biopharma Mission

Launch: 2017, by Department of Biotechnology (DBT), Ministry of Science & Technology
Funding: ₹1,500 crore (2017–2022), supported by World Bank.
Objective: Promote development & commercialization of novel biopharma products (vaccines, monoclonal antibodies, biologics).
Vision: Position India as a global hub for biopharmaceutical innovation, manufacturing & exports.
Innovate India (i3) Programme
- Programme under the National Biopharma Mission aimed at innovation and industry-academia collaboration.

Pradhan Mantri Bhartiya Janaushadhi Pariyojana (PMBJP)

Launch Year: Originally in November 2008 as Jan Aushadhi Scheme; renamed PMBJP in 2016.
Implemented by the Pharmaceuticals & Medical Devices Bureau of India (PMBI) (Department of Pharmaceuticals, Ministry of Chemicals & Fertilizers).
Objective: To provide quality generic medicines, surgicals, and consumables at affordable prices, especially to economically weaker sections, and reduce out-of-pocket healthcare expenditure.
Generic drugs cost 50–90% less than branded alternatives.
Incentive Structure
- Up to ₹5 lakh per Kendra.
- Additional ₹2 lakh for aspirational districts & NE states.
- Monthly incentive: 15% of purchase (max ₹15,000/month)
By January 2025, India had already established 15,057 Jan Aushadhi Kendras, surpassing the March 2025 target two months early.

Jan Aushadhi Diwas 2025

7th March is celebrated as ‘Jan Aushadhi Diwas’ to raise awareness about the scheme and promote the use of generic medicines.
Celebrated from March 1–7 as Jan Aushadhi Saptah.
Theme: “जन औषधि: दाम कम, दवाई उत्तम”।

Major Initiatives under PMBJP

Suvidha Sanitary Napkins:
- Launched: 27 August 2019.
- Objective: Health security for Indian women → Oxo-biodegradable Sanitary Napkins.
- Price: ₹1 per pad.
Jan Aushadhi SUGAM Mobile App (2019)
- Features: Locate nearby Kendras via Google Maps, search generic medicines, compare generic vs branded prices, calculate savings.
- Aims to enhance accessibility and transparency.\

Some Important Concepts Related to BioTechnology

Biometrics

Biometrics = Technology that uses unique biological and behavioral characteristics to identify individuals.
Types of Biometric Identifiers
- Physiological
  - Relates to the physical body structure.
  - Fingerprints, Iris Scans, Facial Recognition, Hand Geometry, DNA, and Retinal scans.
- Behavioral
  - Relates to patterns of human action.
  - Voice Recognition, Typing Cadence (Keystroke dynamics), Gait (walking style), and Signature dynamics.
Applications in India
- Aadhaar: World’s largest biometric ID system (fingerprint + iris).
- Digital Governance: Used in PDS, DBT, e-KYC, voter authentication.
- Security: Airports (facial recognition technique), border control, police databases.
- Banking & FinTech: Biometric authentication for transactions (Aadhaar Enabled Payment System).
- Healthcare: Patient identification, medical records.
- UIDAI Updates (2025): Strengthened biometric authentication with facial recognition + AI-based liveness detection to reduce fraud.
- Election Commission (2025): Pilot projects using biometrics for voter verification.

DNA Fingerprinting/DNA Profiling

DNA fingerprinting is a laboratory technique that identifies individuals (biometric identification) by analyzing their DNA.
Biometric Identification: Fingerprint, Iris scanning, Retinal scanning and Voice recognition are used for biometric identification of person.
Sir Alec Jeffreys pioneered DNA-based identity testing.
DNA fingerprinting works on the principle of polymorphism in DNA sequences.

Southern Blotting Technique

It is a laboratory technique used to study DNA and identify specific DNA sequences within a complex mixture.
It’s used in DNA fingerprinting to compare the lines produced by DNA samples from different people:
Steps of Southern blotting:

Procedure Step	Explanation
1.Digest/Extract DNA	Purified DNA from a biological sample is digested with restriction enzymes to create DNA fragments of different sizes.
2. Separate DNA fragments	The DNA fragments are separated by size using gel electrophoresis. Smaller fragments move faster than larger fragments through the gel.
3. Transfer DNA fragments	The DNA fragments are transferred from the gel onto a solid membrane (nitrocellulose or nylon).
4. Expose to DNA probe	The membrane is exposed to a DNA probe that’s labeled with a radioactive, fluorescent, or chemical tag.
5. Visualize DNA fragments	Any DNA fragments that contain complementary sequences with the DNA probe sequence will be visualized.

Bio-Signature/ Bio-Indicator

A biosignature is any measurable phenomenon, chemical compound, or physical structure that provides scientific evidence of past or present life.
Used mainly in astrobiology and origin of life studies.
Key principle: Must rule out all possible abiotic (non-living) causes before confirming as a biosignature.
Applications
- Astrobiology: Search for life on Mars (NASA’ s Bio-Indicator Lidar Instrument – BILI), Europa, Enceladus, exoplanets.
- Earth Sciences: Studying early life forms and evolution.
- Space Missions:
  - NASA’s Mars rovers (Perseverance) analyzing rocks for biosignatures.
  - James Webb Space Telescope (JWST): Detected possible biosignature gases (methane + CO₂ imbalance) on an exoplanet in TRAPPIST-1 system.

DNA Storage

DNA Data Storage = Encoding digital information into synthetic DNA sequences using the base pairs (four nucleotides – A, T, G, C).
Each nucleotide represents binary data (0s and 1s), enabling ultra-dense, long-term storage.
Key Features
- Density: 1 gram of DNA can theoretically store ~215 petabytes of data.
- Durability: DNA can last for centuries if preserved properly.
- Energy Efficiency: Requires minimal energy compared to magnetic/electronic storage.
- Challenges: Slow read/write speeds, high cost of DNA synthesis and sequencing.

DNA Barcoding

DNA Barcoding = Technique of using a short, standardized DNA sequence to identify species.
Works like a “genetic barcode” → unique to each species, enabling rapid and accurate identification.
Example: Building global DNA barcode libraries (e.g., BOLD – Barcode of Life Data System).

Key Enzymes – Source, Function, and Significance

Enzyme	Source/Location	Function/Role	Significance
EcoRI (Restriction Endonuclease II)	Escherichia coli bacterium	Cuts DNA at specific palindromic sequences → Molecular Cloning	Produces sticky ends → Used in genetic engineering
Acrosin	Sperm Acrosome	Protease → Digests zona pellucida → Helps sperm penetrate ovum	Facilitates fertilization; secreted by sperm only
Succinic Dehydrogenase	Mitochondria	Key enzyme in Krebs cycle and Electron Transport Chain	Marker enzyme; involved in energy metabolism
Acid Phosphatase	Lysosomes	Hydrolyzes phosphate esters → Macromolecule degradation	Lysosomal marker enzyme
Catalase	Peroxisomes	Decomposes H₂O₂ into water + oxygen → Protects cells from oxidative damage	Prevents oxidative stress
Cytochrome C Oxidase	Mitochondria	Terminal enzyme in ETC → Catalyzes oxygen reduction	Critical for ATP synthesis
Hyaluronidase	Sperm cells and some cancer cells	Degrades hyaluronic acid in extracellular matrix	Assists sperm movement; helps cancer metastasis
Lysosomal Acid Lipase	Lysosomes	Hydrolyzes cholesteryl esters and triglycerides	Deficiency causes lipid storage disorders

Department of Biotechnology Year End Review 2025

1. Bio-Economy & Global Standing

Bio-economy Growth: India’s bio-economy expanded (16x fold) from $10 billion (2014) to $165.7 billion (2024), with a target of $300 billion by 2030.
Global Rank: India is ranked 12th in the world in biotechnology and 3rd in the Asia-Pacific region.
Ecosystem: India hosts the 3rd largest startup ecosystem globally and is the world’s largest vaccine manufacturer.

2. Key Policies & Institutional Frameworks

BioE3 Policy:
1. Focuses on “Economy, Employment, and Environment” through high-performance biomanufacturing.
2. Thematic Sectors: Includes bio-based chemicals, smart proteins, precision biotherapeutics, climate-resilient agriculture, carbon capture, and futuristic marine/space research.
3. BioE3 Cells: Interconnected knowledge hubs being established at the state level (e.g., Assam was the first to sign an MoU; Sikkim has a notified cell).
4. BioE3 “D.E.S.I.G.N” Challenge: Launched to empower youth in solving critical issues through biotechnology.
National Biofoundry Network: India’s first network of six biofoundries was launched to strengthen indigenous biomanufacturing.
Biomedical Research Career Programme (BRCP) Phase-III (2025-2031): Approved with an outlay of ₹1,500 crore (DBT contributing ₹1,000 cr; Wellcome Trust, UK contributing ₹500 cr).
Biotechnology Research and Innovation Council (BRIC): Subsumes 13 autonomous research institutions into a single governance body to synergize research.

3. Health & Medical Biotechnology

GenomeIndia Project: Achieved the milestone of 10,000 whole genome sequences made accessible via the Indian Genomic Data Set.
TB Elimination (Dare2eraD TB): Sequenced 18,000 Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) isolates to map drug resistance using AI-enabled tools.
GARBH-INi Program:
1. Developed a panel of 66 SNPs (genetic markers) to predict preterm birth risk (sPTB) in Indian women.
2. Created AI-driven tools for accurate gestational age assessment.
3. 12,000 pregnant women enrolled with 14 lakh biospecimens and 1 lakh ultrasound images archived.
National Biopharma Mission (NBM): Delivered indigenous technologies including ZyCoV-D, Corbevax, biosimilars like Liraglutide and India’s first indigenous MRI scanner.
CAR T-cell Therapy: Launch of Varnimcabtagene autoleucel (IMN-003A) for treating B-cell malignancies.
Indigenous Medical Devices:
1. Septicheck: HPLC-based multiplex drug monitoring kit.
2. OncoAlert: Screening device for oral cancer.
3. Hip Pro: Smartbelt for the elderly that inflates cushions automatically during a fall.

4. Agriculture & Food Biotechnology

Gene-Edited Rice: Developed high-yielding varieties by editing the DEP1 (DENSE PANICLE-1) gene, resulting in a 20% yield increase.
Climate Resilience:
1. Advika & Saatvik: Drought-tolerant chickpea varieties selected for the “Self-Reliance in Pulses Mission” (developed by BRIC-NIPGR).
2. ADT 39-Sub1: Rice variety tolerant to submergence.
3. Arun: A drought-resistant rice variety for the North Eastern Region (by Assam Agricultural University).
4. Abu Saunf-440:
  - A climate-specific, drought-resistant, high-yielding, disease resistant fennel variety.
  - A farmer-led innovation developed by Shri Ishaq Ali of Kachholi village, Sirohi, under the DBT Biotech-KISAN Hub.
  - Abu Saunf Community Gene Bank: At Sirohi for biodiversity conservation.
CRISPR-Edited Mustard: Transgene-free lines (Brassica juncea) developed with reduced harmful glucosinolates and higher glucoraphanin (anti-cancer properties). Knockout of the ALKENYL HYDROXALKYL PRODUCING 2 (AOP2) gene family.
Varuna, Pusa bold, Pusa Jai Kisan and Rohini : Rust resistance varieties of mustard.
Indian Rice panArray (IndRA) : First-ever pan-genome-based SNP genotyping assay developed for crop plants.
1. Indian Chickpea panArray (IndiCA): Pan-genome SNP Genotyping Array for chickpea.
Genomics: Reference genomes sequenced for Linseed (T 397- Telomere-to-Telomere Genome).
New Guidelines: Notification of the ‘Guidelines on Genetically Engineered Plants Containing Stacked Events, 2025’ for biosafety assessment.

5. Space Biotechnology (Axiom-4 Mission)

Muscle Regeneration: India’s first human muscle stem-cell experiment on the ISS showed impaired regeneration and reduced mitochondrial function in microgravity, mimicking terrestrial sarcopenia (muscle aging).
Life Support: Validated the growth of microalgae (Chlorella sorokiniana-1) and cyanobacteria in microgravity, proving they can utilize human waste (CO2/urea) for nutrition (Recycling human waste → nutrients).

6. Energy, Environment & Bioinformatics

Biofuel (1G Ethanol): Developed (by International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi) an engineered Glucoamylase Secreting yeast strain that reduces external enzyme requirements by 50% during grain fermentation .
Indian Biological Data Centre (IBDC): Launched portals like FeED (Framework for Exchange of Data Protocols) to manage biological data modularly.

7. Schemes

Bio-incubators Nurturing Enterprise for Scaling Technologies (BioNEST): BIRAC’s Incubation network.
EYUVA (Encouraging Youth for Undertaking Innovative Research Through Vibrant Acceleration): An initiative of BIRAC designed to cultivate a culture of applied research and innovation among young students across India.