The Political and Cultural Achievements of Vijayanagara: In the subject of Ancient and Medieval India, the Vijayanagara Empire (14th–17th century CE) stands out for its strong political organization and rich cultural contributions in South India. It developed an efficient administrative system, a powerful military, and promoted trade and urbanization, while also fostering remarkable achievements in temple architecture, literature, and art, especially under rulers like Krishnadevaraya.
Political Achievements of Vijayanagara
Meaning and Importance
- The literal meaning of Vijayanagara is “City of Victory.”
- It is considered the first major Hindu empire of medieval India.
- The capital was Vijayanagara (Hampi), located on the southern bank of the Tungabhadra River.
- The city symbolized power and prosperity.
According to the Persian traveler Abdur Razzaq,
- “Vijayanagara was one of the most magnificent cities in the world that he had seen or heard about.”
Establishment
- The Vijayanagara Empire was established in 1336 CE by Harihara and Bukka.
- It emerged as a strong reaction against the expansion of Muslim power in South India.
Causes of Establishment
- Desire to protect Hindu religion, society and culture from the influence of Islamic culture.
- Political instability and fragmentation in South India.
- Continuous rebellions and disturbances in the South since the time of Alauddin Khalji.
Background of Harihara and Bukka
- Initially they served Kakatiya ruler Prataparudra.
- Later they moved to Kampili.
- After being captured in war, they accepted Islam.
Events during Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s Period
- In 1334 CE, a rebellion broke out in Kampili province.
- Harihara and Bukka were sent to South India to suppress the revolt.
- After reaching there, they:
- Established an independent kingdom.
- Reconverted to Hinduism.
Role of Vidyaranya
- Saint Vidyaranya played an important role by:
- Re-initiating the two brothers into Hinduism.
- Inspiring them to establish an independent Hindu kingdom.
- With his guidance and blessings, the foundation of the Vijayanagara Empire was laid.
- The empire protected and promoted the Hindu religion.
- The Sangama dynasty was established in the name of their father, Sangama.
Bukka I (1356–1377 CE)
- Bukka I was known as the “Lord of the Three Seas.”
- In 1370–71 CE, Madura (Madurai) was annexed into the Vijayanagara Empire.
- This campaign was led by his son Kampana (Kampanadeva).
- In 1374 CE, an embassy was sent to China.
Vijayanagara–Bahmani Conflict
Main causes:
- Control over the Raichur Doab.
- Fertile land of the Tungabhadra–Krishna region.
- Presence of diamond and iron mines.
Other important events:
- 1356 CE – Bahmani ruler Alauddin Bahman Shah captured Raichur.
- 1367 CE – Conflict between Bukka I and Muhammad Shah I (Bahmani):
- Battle for Raichur Doab.
- The Krishna River became the boundary between the two empires.
- Large-scale killing of civilians occurred during the war.
- Gunpowder was used for the first time.
Harihara II (1377–1404 CE)
- Adopted the titles “Maharajadhiraja” and “Raja Parameshwara.”
- He was the first Vijayanagara ruler to assume royal imperial titles.
Territorial Expansion
He annexed several regions of Karnataka, including:
- Kannur
- Mysore
- Trichinopoly (Tiruchirappalli)
- Kanchi
Other Achievements
- Recovered Belgaum from the Bahmanis.
- Conquered Goa, gaining control over important ports such as the following:
- Vengal
- Chola ports.
Foreign Accounts / Literary Sources
| Author | Work |
| Sayana | Commentator of Aitareya Brahmana |
| Madhavacharya | Suvarna Sangraha |
| Srinatha | Haravilasa |
| Irugappa Dandanayaka | Commander and author of Nanartha Ratnamala |
- Succession
- Virupaksha I (1404–1406 CE)
- Bukka II
- Devaraya I (1406–1422 CE)
Devaraya I (1406–1422 CE)
Foreign Account
According to the Italian traveler Nicolo Conti:
→ “Devaraya was more powerful than the other kings of India.”
Conflict with Bahmani Kingdom
- Conflict between Devaraya I and Firoz Shah Bahmani.
- In the war of 1406:
- Paid 10 lakh Huns, pearls, and elephants.
- Married his daughter to Firoz Shah.
- The Bankipur region was given as a dowry.
- In the final battle, he defeated Bahmani forces with the help of the king of Warangal.
Public Welfare Works
- Constructed a dam on the Tungabhadra River.
- Built a canal up to Vijayanagara.
- Constructed a dam on the Haridra River.
Military Reforms
- Realized the importance of cavalry.
- Imported horses from Arabia.
- Recruited 10,000 Muslim soldiers in the army.
Devaraya II (1425/26–1446 CE)
- Other Name
- Ramachand
- (“Ramachand” and “Vijayaraja” being his names, they were his uncle and father, respectively)
- Imadi Devaraya
- Title
- “Gajavetekara” (Conqueror of enemies as powerful as elephants)
- Military Reforms
- Appointed 10,000 Muslim cavalry soldiers.
- Recruited 2,000 Turkish archers to train Hindu soldiers in archery.
- Foreign Account
- The Persian traveler Abdur Razzaq wrote:
→ “Vijayanagara is such a city that neither the eyes have seen nor the ears have heard of its equal.” - The Persian ambassador also visited the Vijayanagara royal court.
- The Persian traveler Abdur Razzaq wrote:
- Tributary States (According to Chinese sources)
- Ceylon (Sri Lanka)
- Pulicat
- Pegu (Burma)
- Tenasserim (Malaya)
- Literary Contributions
- Composed Mahanataka Sudhanidhi.
- Wrote a commentary on the Brahmasutra of grammar.
- Received the title “Kavi Saranga.”
- Court Scholars
- Srinatha – Work: Dinima (Sanskrit)
- Poet Chamarasa – Work: Prabhulinga Leela
- Other Achievements
- Declared Telugu as the official language.
Mallikarjuna (1446–1465 CE)
- He visited Calicut.
Virupaksha II (1465–1485 CE)
- Killed by his own son.
- Last ruler of the Sangama dynasty.
Saluva Dynasty (1485–1505 CE)
- Saluva Narasimha (a feudatory of Chandragiri) ended the Sangama dynasty in 1485 CE.
- Veera Narasimha, son of Nayaka Narasa,
- Killed Immadi Narasimha
- Established the Tuluva dynasty.
Tuluva Dynasty (1505–1570 CE)
Krishnadevaraya (1509–1529 CE)
- Coronation title: Rajadhiraja Krishnaraja
- Wars
- Krishnadevaraya vs Mahmud Shah + Adil Shah (Bijapur)
- 1520 CE: Bijapur defeated → Raichur Doab captured.
- Adil Shah + Portuguese (Figueiredo) vs Krishnadevaraya → Krishnadevaraya victorious.
- 1513 CE:
- Victory over Orissa (Gajapati ruler Prataparudra Deva).
- Conquered Telangana, Warangal, and Rajahmundry.
- Married the daughter of the Gajapati ruler.
- Victory Monument
- Constructed Vijaya Bhavana (Victory Hall).
Achyutadevaraya (1529–1542 CE)
- Younger brother and successor of Krishnadevaraya.
- A coronation was held at the Tirupati temple.
- Appointed Mahamandaleshwaras for administrative purposes.
Sadashiva Raya (1542–1570 CE)
- Real power was in the hands of Rama Raya (Aravidu dynasty).
- Formation of a Deccan Muslim confederacy.
Battle of Talikota (1565 CE)
- Conflict: Vijayanagara vs Bijapur + Golconda + Ahmadnagar + Bidar
- Commanders:
- Vijayanagara: Rama Raya
- Opposition: Husain Nizam Shah
- Result:
- Vijayanagara defeated
- Rama Raya killed
- The glory of Vijayanagara declined
- Foreign Accounts
- Domingo Paes and Duarte Barbosa (Portuguese travelers) described Vijayanagara.
- Historian’s Statement
- R. Sewell – Author of “A Forgotten Empire”.
- He stated that Vijayanagara was one of the most magnificent cities in world history.
- R. Sewell – Author of “A Forgotten Empire”.
Aravidu Dynasty (1570–1646 CE)
- Tirumala, brother of Rama Raya,
- Shifted the capital from Vijayanagara to Penukonda.
- Deposed Sadashiva Raya.
- Tirumala is called the “Restorer of the Karnatak Empire.”
Important Rulers
- Succession
- Tirumala Deva Raya (1565–1572)
- Sriranga Deva Raya I (Sriranga I) (1572–1586)
- Venkatapati Deva Raya II (Venkata II) (1586–1614)
- Sriranga II (1614–1617)
- Rama Deva Raya (1617–1632)
- Peda Venkata Raya (Venkata III) (1632–1642)
- Sriranga III (1642–1646/1652)
Venkata II (1586–1614 CE)
- Capital shifted: Penukonda → Chandragiri (1614 CE).
- Mysore became independent (with permission).
- Ruling dynasty: Wodeyar (Odeyar) dynasty.
Sriranga III
- Last ruler of the Vijayanagara Empire.
- Major Regions
- Mysore
- Vellore
- Madurai
- Tanjore
- Eventually the empire was defeated and displaced by these regional powers
- Decline of Vijayanagara Empire
- Ultimately the Vijayanagara Empire collapsed
- Historian’s View
- Burton Stein in
- Peasant State and Society in Medieval South India
- Vijayanagar – The New Cambridge History of India
- explained Vijayanagara as a “Segmentary State.”
- Burton Stein in
Cultural Achievements of Vijayanagara
The cultural achievements of Vijayanagara can be divided into three main parts:
- Literature
- Architecture
- Music and Dance
1. Literature
General Information
- Krishnadevaraya was a great scholar and patron of the arts.
- He was given the titles “Abhinava Bhoja,” “Andhra Bhoja,” and “Andhra Pitamaha.”
- During the Vijayanagara period, literature developed in the Sanskrit, Tamil, and Kannada languages.
- Krishnadevaraya himself was a great poet in Sanskrit and Telugu.
Works of Krishnadevaraya
| Language | Work | Subject / Feature |
| Telugu | Amuktamalyada | Describes the marriage of Vishnu’s incarnation Ranganayaka with Saint Andal; also contains political and administrative ideas. It is also known as Vishnuchittiya and Vishnuvittiya. |
| Sanskrit | Jambavati Kalyana, Usha Parinaya, Madalasa Charitra | These are dramatic and poetic compositions. |
Golden Age of Telugu Literature (Reign of Krishnadevaraya)
- During the reign of Krishnadevaraya, Telugu literature reached its golden age.
- In his court there were eight famous poets known as the “Ashtadiggajas.”
- This period is regarded as the classical age of Telugu literature.
Ashtadiggajas Poets
| Poet | Major Work | Language |
| Allasani Peddana | Manucharita (Svarochita Sambhava), Harikatha Saranasamu | Telugu |
| Nandi Timmana | Parijata Harana | Telugu |
| Bhattamurti | Narasabhupaliyam, Vasu Charitra | Telugu |
| Dhurjati | Kalahasti Mahatmyam | Telugu |
| Tenali Rama | Panduranga Mahatmya | Telugu |
| Other poets | Mallana, Ramachandra, Jirgali Muran | Telugu |
- Allasani Peddana is called the “Father of Telugu Poetry” (Andhra Kavita Pitamaha).
- Tenali Rama is often compared to Birbal of Akbar’s court.
Five Great Epics of Telugu Literature
- Amuktamalyada – by Krishnadevaraya
- Manucharita – by Allasani Peddana
- Vasu Charitra—by Bhattamurti
- Raghava Pandaveeyam – by Pingali Surana
- Panduranga Mahatmya – by Tenali Rama
Other Literary Works
In Sanskrit
- Sayana – Commentaries on the Vedas, Sudhanidhi, Sangeetsara.
- Hemadri – Commentaries on Dharmashastra texts.
- Ishwara Dikshita – Commentaries on Hemakuta.
- Agastya – Composed several poetic works.
- Srinatha – Shringara Deepika, Shringara Naishadha, Haravilasam.
- Madhava Vidyaranya – Kala Nirnaya and commentary on Parashara Smriti.
- Ramaraja Pandit – Vasu Charitra (in Kannada).
- Rajanatha – Shalvabhyudaya, Bhagavata Champu.
In Kannada
- Madhura – Dharmanatha Purana.
- Ketana – Translation of Dashakumara Charita; received the title “Abhinava Dandi.”
- Poems composed in praise of Gomateshwara.
During the reign of Krishnadevaraya, several works were composed in Sanskrit and Kannada, among which Bhava Chintarani and Veer Shaivamrita are notable.
In Tamil
- The Tamil language was already well developed, and it continued to progress during the Vijayanagara period.
- Other Notable Works
- Madura Vijayam – by Ganga Devi (wife of Kumara Kampana).
- Varadambika Parinayam – by Tiruvallamba (on the marriage of Achyuta Raya).
- The Tamil Country under Vijayanagar – by A. Krishnaswami.
Architecture
Main Architectural Features
- The architectural style of Vijayanagara is called the Dravida style (a form of Vesara style).
Key features:
- Huge Gopurams (Raya Gopuram)
- Thousand-pillared mandapas, Kalyana mandapas, and Amman mandapas
- Decorated pillars and ornate ceilings
- Carved bases beneath pillars
- Sculptures of Yali (mythical sea-horse/lion) on pillars
- Special mandapas for divine marriage ceremonies (Kalyanotsava)
Major Constructions
| Construction | Builder | Special Feature |
| Hazara Rama Temple | Krishnadevaraya | Dedicated to Lord Rama |
| Vittala Swami Temple | Krishnadevaraya | Dedicated to Lord Krishna |
| Naglapur City | Krishnadevaraya | Built in memory of his mother Nagala Devi |
| Hospet City | Krishnadevaraya | Built in memory of his wife |
| Lotus Mahal | — | Shows Islamic influence on Hindu architecture |
| Lepakshi Temple | — | Famous for the largest monolithic Nandi statue and Lepakshi paintings |
Note:
- The rulers of Vijayanagara governed in the name of Lord Virupaksha (Shiva).
- Krishnadevaraya himself was a Vaishnava.
Music and Dance (संगीत एवं नृत्य)
Main Features
- Krishnadevaraya and other Vijayanagara rulers gave special patronage to music and dance.
- The royal court included many famous singers, musicians, and dancers
Important Musical Texts
| Author | Work | Description |
| Sayana | Sangeet Sara | Explanation of musical principles |
| Mallinatha | — | Worked under the patronage of Mallikarjuna |
| Ramamatya (grandson of Mallinatha) | Swaramela Kalanidhi | Important music treatise |
| Lakshminarayana | Sangeet Sarvodaya | Written in the court of Devaraya II |
| Court musicians of Krishnadevaraya | — | Associated with works like Sangeet Sarvodaya and Swaramela Kalanidhi |
