Ajivika sect is an important topic in Ancient and Medieval history, emerging around the 6th century BCE alongside Buddhism and Jainism. Founded by Makkhali Gosala, it emphasized the doctrine of Niyati (determinism), believing that all events are preordained. The sect contributed to the diverse philosophical traditions of ancient India, though it later declined.
Ajivika sect
The Ajivika sect is also called โFatalistโ and “Determinist.”
Founder โ Makkhaliputra Gaushal.
Monks named Nandavachchha and Sankish played a major role in the rise of this sect. [According to Buddhist records]
Literature
The literature of the Ajivika sect is divided into 10 Purvas,8 Mahanimmitas, and 2 Maggas.
The literature of the Ajivika sect has been called โNavakadirโ in South India.
Ajivika literature is NOT preserved
Knowledge comes mainly from Buddhist & Jain texts
Makkhaliputra Gaushal
According to Jain sources, Makkhaliputra Gosala’s father was “Mankha” (one who exhibited religious paintings); hence, his name was “Mankhali,” and his mother’s name was “Bhadda.”
BirthโIn a cowshed in ‘Sarawan’ village (Shravasti).
Makkhaliputra was initially a disciple of Mahavir Swami. [Gosaala first met Mahavir in Nalanda and their friendship lasted for six years.]
In South India, Makkhaliputra Gosala has been called an ‘indescribable god.’
The conflict between Mahavir and Makkhaliputra is described in “Bhagwati Sutra.”
Main Center
The main center of the Ajivika sect was Shravasti.
The house of a potter woman named “Halฤhalฤ” served as a major center of the Ajivika faith (in Shravasti).
Spreading
King Prasenjit of Kaushal was a prominent member of the Ajivika sect.
The Maurya period is considered to be the period of the zenith of the Ajivika sect.
Mauryan emperors Ashoka and Dasharath provided caves to the Ajivikas.
According to the Mahavamsa, this sect also had influence in South India and Sri Lanka.
The Ajivika sect existed till about 1002 AD.
Mention of Ajivikas in other texts
A description of Aajivaks as a religious sect is found in Patanjali’s “Mahabhashya.”
The Aajivak sect has been severely criticized in both Buddhist and Jain texts.
Beliefs
Belief in the theory of rebirth and criticism and ridicule of the rigorous penance of Vedic ascetics.
Ajivikas worshipped a tree called Ashoka and kept their bodies unclean and wore peacock feathers.
There was no division on the basis of caste in the Ajivika sect.
According to Ajivikas, all creatures are subject to destiny (fate), and a man’s life is not affected by his deeds.
In Ajivika philosophy, five elements are acceptedโearth, water, air, fire, and living beings.
According to Ajivikas, there are six inevitable factors in lifeโprofit and loss, happiness and sorrow, and life and death.
People of the Ajivika faith used to beg for alms and eat food only once a day by holding it in the palm; hence, they are called “Hathapalekhana.”
Ajivikas were naked ascetics.
Ajivikas used to leave their bodies with dance and song at the end of their lives.
Note-
โ Urban merchants, householders, and women were also eligible to be initiated into it.
Aajivakas are also called โEka Dandinโ because they hold a staff.
Aajivakas had wealthy disciples like potters and bankers.
The Aajivaka sect spread to every corner of the country, although their influence was much less than that of Buddhism and Jainism.
Makkhali Gosala (founder of the Ajivika sect)
Main ideas:
Everything in life happens according to determinism.
No one can change anything through their actions, nor are the results affected by anyone’s actions.
Actions or moral efforts are futile.
Purana Kassapa
After Gosala’s death, he became associated with the Ajivika sect.
Principle:
There is neither sin nor merit in action.
Killing, causing suffering, or helping othersโall actions are morally equivalent.
Liberation is not possible through action, because everything is predetermined.
Inaction is the path to liberation.
Pakudha Kaccayana
The second major philosopher associated with the Ajivikas after Gosala.
Principle (Seven-Substance Theory):
The world is made up of seven substancesโwhich are
โuncreated, unchangeable, stable, immovable, and independent of one another.โ
These substances cannot cause pleasure or pain to one another.
Change is impossible; everything is predetermined and fixed.
Ajit Case Kamblin
Materialist philosopher.
Principle:
Humans are composed of four basic elements (earth, water, fire, and air).
After death, these elements dissolve back into the earthโthere is no soul or reincarnation.
Generosity, self-control, truthfulness, etc., are all in vain; there is neither heaven nor hell after death.
Both the wise and the foolish perish when the body is destroyed.
Lokayata/Charvaka
Introduction
Lokayata/Charvaka = Indian materialistic philosophy.
This philosophy is based on secularism, empiricism, positivism, and hedonism.
Charvaka and Ajita Kesakambalin formalized it into a philosophical system.
Brihaspati is traditionally considered its founder.
The word “Lokayata” means “that which is prevalent among the people.”
Main principles
Materialism: Only the physical world is real.
God, soul, reincarnation, karma, liberation, and the afterlifeโall are denied.
Four-element theory:
Earth, water, air, and fireโonly these four elements exist.
Empiricism: Only direct experience is the source of knowledge.
Inference, scriptures, and the Vedas are not sources of knowledge.
Hedonism:
The ultimate goal of life is the attainment of happiness.
“Happiness is moral; suffering is “immoral”โthis is the foundation of morality.
This-worldliness:
This world is the ultimate reality; there is no life after death.
Only two pursuits:
Wealth and pleasure (rejecting righteousness and liberation).
Charvaka’s ethical perspective
“Live happily as long as you live; drink ghee even if you have to borrow money.”
No one returns after death; therefore, enjoy the present moment.
The certain happiness of the present is better than the uncertain happiness of the future.
One should not give up great happiness for fear of a small hardship.
(Example: Don’t give up eating fish for fear of a thorn.)
religious and philosophical rejection
He declared the Vedas, sacrifices, rituals, reincarnation, the world, and liberationโall to be false and foolish.
He refuted all the doctrines of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and the Ajivika sect.
He explained the soul using the “betel leaf analogy”โconsciousness arises only when four elements combine.
After death, this consciousness ceases to exist; therefore, liberation = death itself.
Jainism, Buddhism, Ajivika and Lokayata: A Comparative Study
Aspect
Jainism (Mahavira, 6th century BCE)
Buddhism (Gautama Buddha, 6th century BCE)
Ajivika (Makkhali Gosala, 6th century BCE)
Lokayata/Charvaka (Materialist School)
Nature
An ethicalโphilosophical system emphasizing asceticism and penance.
A practical and ethical philosophy advocating the Middle Path.
A deterministic and ascetic sect based on the doctrine of fate.
A materialist and atheistic philosophical tradition.
Concept of God
Nontheistic; does not accept a creator God.
Nontheistic; rejects the concept of a creator God.
Denial of God, with emphasis solely on destiny (Niyati).
Atheistic, rejecting the existence of God.
Concept of Soul
The soul (jiva) is eternal and capable of attaining liberation (moksha).
Doctrine of Anatman (no permanent soul).
Accepts the existence of the soul, but it is controlled by destiny.
Denial of the soul.
Basis of the Universe
Composed of Jiva (living) and Ajiva (non-living elements).
Based on the doctrine of Pratityasamutpada (Dependent Origination).
Governed by Niyati (absolute determinism).
Based on the five great elements (Panchamahabhutas).
Role of Karma
Karma leads to bondage; liberation is achieved through Samvara and Nirjara (stoppage and shedding of karma).
Karma and dependent origination determine the cycle of existence.
Karma has no real significance; everything is predetermined by fate.
Rejects karma and rebirth.
Liberation / Ultimate Goal
Moksha is attained through penance and the Three Jewels (Triratna).
Nirvana is attained through the Eightfold Path.
Liberation is impossible; everything is governed by destiny.
Rejects liberation; material enjoyment is considered the aim of life.
View of Life
Strict asceticism, emphasis on non-violence (Ahimsa) and non-possession (Aparigraha).
Middle Path, emphasizing compassion and non-violence.
A fatalistic worldview combined with severe ascetic practices.
Hedonistic outlook, expressed in the maxim “Yavat jivet sukham jivetโ (live happily as long as you live).
Special Doctrines
Anekantavada and Syadvada.
Middle Path and momentariness (Kshanikavada).
Doctrine of Determinism (Niyativada).
Empiricism and materialism.
Historical Significance
A major pillar of the Shramana tradition, particularly influential in Magadha.
Spread widely across Asia, becoming one of Indiaโs greatest cultural exports.
Contemporary with other Shramana movements but gradually declined.
Represents the materialist tradition in Indian philosophy.
Similarities among Jainism, Buddhism, Ajivika and Lokayata
Similarity
Description
Part of the Shramana Tradition
All four traditions emerged around the 6th century BCE as part of the Shramana movement, which developed in opposition to the orthodox Vedic tradition.
Non-theism
All four rejected the idea of a creator God responsible for the origin of the universe.
Opposition to Vedic Ritualism
They criticized Vedic sacrifices (yajnas), animal sacrifices, priestly dominance, and complex ritual practices.
Opposition to Social Hierarchy
These traditions challenged Brahmanical dominance and the rigid caste-based social order.
Emphasis on Reason and Experience
Each tradition, in different ways, emphasized reason, direct experience, and ethical conduct rather than blind adherence to ritual authority.
Discussion on Soul and the Purpose of Life
Although their views differedโJainism accepted the soul, Buddhism propounded the doctrine of Anatman, and Lokayata denied the soulโall engaged in debates about the nature of the soul, liberation, and the purpose of life.
Ideas on Asceticism and Enjoyment
Despite differing views on lifeโs goalโranging from ascetic discipline to material enjoymentโall addressed the practical concerns of ordinary human life.
Wide Social Impact
These traditions gained significant popularity among the masses outside the Vedic fold and contributed to the growth of social and philosophical pluralism in ancient India.
Shad Darshana
The six ฤstika (orthodox) schools of philosophy that believe in the ultimate authority of the Vedas are collectively known as Shad Darshana.
These are Sฤแนkhya, Yoga, Nyฤya, Vaiลeแนฃika, Pลซrva Mฤซmฤแนsฤ, and Uttara Mฤซmฤแนsฤ (Vedฤnta).
Sฤแนkhya Philosophy
Aspect
Description
Founder
Maharshi Kapila (Kalayat, Bikaner)
Nature
Twin philosophy of yoga: evolutionary philosophy
Early Form
Materialistic โ creation caused by Prakriti, not God
Later Development
Spiritual โ Purusha (soul) also accepted as a fundamental principle
Core Doctrine
Creation arises from Prakriti (matter) and Purusha (soul)
Path to Liberation
True knowledge through perception, inference, and testimony
Three Qualities of Prakriti
Sattva, Rajas, Tamas
Special Feature
Purusha = consciousness; Prakriti = material world
Yoga Philosophy
Aspect
Description
Founder
Maharshi Patanjali
Relation
Twin philosophy of Sฤแนkhya
Meaning of Yoga
โYoga = Chitta Vritti Nirodha (control of mind)โ
Goal
Liberation through control of body, breath, and senses
