Administration of the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1226): In the subject of Ancient and Medieval India, the early phase of the Delhi Sultanate under rulers like Qutb-ud-din Aibak and Iltutmish laid the foundation of a centralized administrative system in India. This period witnessed the development of key institutions such as the Iqta system, a structured military organization, and an efficient revenue mechanism, which strengthened the Sultanate’s authority.
Administration of the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1226)
Nature of the State
- Theory vs. Practice: Theoretically, the state was theocratic (based on Islam), but in practice, it was a despotic autocracy.
- Relation with the Caliph: Rulers called themselves the Naib (Deputy) of the Caliph, yet they remained fully autonomous.
- Barani’s View: “This is not Deendari (religious rule) but Jahandari (secular/worldly governance).”
- Iltutmish’s Stance: “Hindustan is Dar-ul-Harb (Land of War/Infidels); it cannot be fully converted into Dar-ul-Islam (Land of Islam).”
- The Sultan: The supreme ruler, chief judge, and commander-in-chief.
- First Sultan: Mahmud Ghaznavi was the first ruler to be formally called “Sultan.”
- Succession: There were no fixed rules for succession; however, Iltutmish initiated the trend of hereditary rule.
- Political Philosophy: Barani stated, “Kingship is useless without a wise Wazir.” Historian Mohammad Habib noted that “Political history truly began with Alauddin Khalji.”
Central Administration of the Delhi Sultanate
The Sultan
- Held supreme authority over governance, justice, and the military.
- Majlis-e-Khalwat (Advisory Body): The consultative council of the Sultan.
- Majlis-e-Aam: For public affairs and general assembly.
- Majlis-e-Khas: For confidential and strategic meetings.
- Power Blocs: The Sultan was influenced/controlled by two main classes:
- Amirs (Ahl-e-Shamshir): The “People of the Sword” (The Nobility).
- Ulema (Ahl-e-Qalam): The “People of the Pen” (Religious and Legal Scholars).
- Naib-e-Mumalikat (Deputy Sultan)
- Creation: This post was created during the reign of Bahram Shah.
- First Naib: Ikhtiyaruddin Aeitigin.
- Key Figures:
- Balban: Held this position under Nasiruddin Mahmud.
- Malik Kafur: Held this position under Alauddin Khalji.
Four Major Departments (Delhi Sultanate Administration)
| Department | Chief Officer | Function |
| Diwan-i-Wizarat | Wazir | Finance and policy department |
| Diwan-i-Arz | Ariz-i-Mumalik | Military department |
| Diwan-i-Insha | Dabir-i-Mumalik | Royal correspondence and issuance of orders |
| Diwan-i-Rasalat | Sadr-us-Sudur / Vakil-i-Dar | Religious, moral or foreign affairs (opinions differ) |
Other Departmental Officers (Delhi Sultanate)
| Post | Function |
| Qazi-ul-Quzat | Chief Justice |
| Sadr-us-Sudur | Promotion of religion and distribution of Zakat |
| Amir-i-Hajib | Court etiquette and protocol |
| Amir-i-Majlis | Arrangement of royal ceremonies and festivals |
| Amir-i-Akhur | Head of royal stables |
| Sar-i-Jandar | Chief of bodyguards |
| Amir-i-Bahr | In charge of waterways/naval affairs |
| Shahna-i-Mandi | Market inspector |
| Mustaufi-i-Mumalik | Auditor General |
| Mushrif-i-Mumalik | Accountant General |
| Muhtasib | Supervisor of public morality and market control |
| Mufti | Interpreter of Islamic law |
| Amir-i-Dad | Special judicial officer |
| Kotwal | Chief of city police |
| Shahna-i-Pil | Head of elephant stables |
| Khas Khel | Royal security guards |
Departments Established by Different Sultans
| Department | Founder |
| Diwan-i-Arz | Balban |
| Diwan-i-Waqf (Waqoof) | Jalaluddin Khalji |
| Diwan-i-Mustakhraj | Alauddin Khalji |
| Diwan-i-Amir Kohi | Muhammad bin Tughlaq |
| Diwan-i-Bandagan | Firoz Shah Tughlaq |
| Vakil-i-Sultan | Nasiruddin Mahmud Tughlaq II |
| Diwan-i-Siyasat | Muhammad bin Tughlaq |
| Diwan-i-Khairat | Firoz Shah Tughlaq |
| Diwan-i-Riyasat | Alauddin Khalji |
| Dar-ul-Shifa & Imlak Department | Firoz Shah Tughlaq |
Provincial Administration of the Delhi Sultanate
- Province = Iqta / Wilayat
- Head = Iqtadar / Nazim / Wali / Muqta
- Wali – Governor of a major province
- Muqta – Governor of a smaller province
- The Wali was assisted by Sahib-e-Diwan / Khwaja.
- Iqtadar performed tax collection, military service, and judicial functions.
- The Iqta system was formally organized (1226 CE) by Iltutmish.
- The first Iqta grant – Muhammad Ghori gave Hansi (Haryana) to Qutbuddin Aibak.
- Khalisa land under direct control of the state.
- Balban (1279) – Appointed Khwaja officials to maintain dual control.
- Alauddin Khalji – Introduced cash salary system and expanded Khalisa land.
- Muhammad bin Tughlaq imposed maximum central control.
- Firoz Shah Tughlaq introduced land grants called Wajh, and officials known as Wajhdar.
- Lodi period—Iqta holders called Wajhdar.
- Sher Shah Suri made Iqta transferable.
Local Administration of the Delhi Sultanate
Province → Shiq → Pargana → Village
- Shiq (district) – Established by Balban (1279).
- Administrator – Shiqdar.
- Pargana Officials
- Amil – Administrative head
- Munsif / Mushrif – Revenue officer
- Village Officials
- Chaudhary, Khut, Muqaddam (hereditary positions)
- Alauddin Khalji abolished the special privileges of village chiefs.
Revenue System
Five Major Taxes
- Ushr
- Land tax on Muslim cultivators
- 10% on naturally irrigated land
- 20% on artificially irrigated land
- Kharaj
- Land tax on non-Muslims
- Usually ⅓ to ½ of the produce
- Areas refusing payment were declared Mawas (rebellious areas).
- Zakat
- Religious tax on Muslims
- 2.5% (1/40 of property)
- Nisab = minimum wealth limit for taxation.
- Jaziya
- Religious tax on non-Muslims
- Paid in return for protection of life and property
- Exemption from military service
- Collected separately from Firoz Shah Tughlaq’s reign.
- Exempt groups: Women, children, monks/ascetics, mad persons, beggars. Often Brahmins were also exempt.
- Rates:48, 24, and 12 dirhams
- First imposed in India by Muhammad bin Qasim (712 CE).
- Khums (Mal-e-Ghanima)
- 1/5 of war booty belonged to the state.
- Policy changes:
- Alauddin Khalji & Muhammad bin Tughlaq took a 4/5 share.
- Firoz Shah Tughlaq – Took only 1/5 share.
- Sikandar Lodi – Did not take a share.
Other Revenue Terms
- Khalisa—Land belonging to the sultan.
- Khalisa / Imlak—The sultan’s personal income land.
- Ijaradari / Muqta system – Contract system of revenue collection. The Muqta system was originally a formal civil-military administrative grant.
- Lodi period – Muqta renamed Wajhdar.
- Jaribana – Land measurement fee.
- Fazil / Fawazil – Additional revenue collected.
- Tarkat—Property of a person dying without heirs.
- Jihat – Additional taxes.
- Ranaka land – Hindu-controlled territories.
- Revenue Officials
- Khut, Muqaddam, Chaudhary—Local revenue collectors
- Sahib-e-Diwan – Revenue audit and accounts supervisor.
Military System
The military of the Delhi Sultanate was the backbone of its power, evolving from a tribal-based militia to a highly organized professional force.
- Military Department: Diwan-e-Arz (Established by Balban to decentralize military control from the Wazir).
- Chief Official: Ariz-e-Mumalik (Responsible for recruitment, inspection, and payment, though not necessarily the commander-in-chief).
- Reforms of Alauddin Khalji:
- Formed a standing army (permanent force) at the center.
- Started the cash payment system for soldiers.
- Introduced Dagh (branding of horses) and Huliya (descriptive rolls of soldiers) to prevent corruption and substitution.
Military Classification (Based on the Mongol Decimal System):
- The army followed a hierarchical structure where each rank commanded ten times the number of the rank below it:
- Sarkhel: Commander of 10 horsemen.
- Sipahsalar: Commander of 100 horsemen.
- Amir: Commander of 1,000 horsemen.
- Malik: Commander of 10,000 horsemen.
- Khan: Commander of 100,000 horsemen (The highest rank below the Sultan).
Key Terms:
- Wajahis/Murattab: Permanent soldiers.
- Ghair-Wajahis: Temporary/irregular soldiers.
- Khas-khel / Sar-e-Jandar: The Sultan’s elite bodyguards.
- Siege Weapons: Manjaniq (catapult), Charkh (crossbow), Maghribi (mechanical stone thrower), and Garghaj (movable towers).
Judicial System
The judiciary was based on Islamic law (Sharia) but also incorporated local customs and the Sultan’s decrees.
Sources of Law (The Four Pillars):
- Quran: The primary holy scripture.
- Hadis: Traditions and sayings of the Prophet Muhammad.
- Ijma: Consensus or interpretations by legal scholars (Mujtahids).
- Qiyas: Analogical reasoning and logic-based law.
Judicial Officers:
- Qazi-ul-Quzat: The Chief Justice of the Sultanate.
- Amir-i-Dad: The secular judge of the capital.
- Qazi-e-Lashkar: Judge for the military camps.
- Muhtasib: Responsible for public morality and market regulations (checking weights and measures).
- Mufti: Legal expert who assisted the Qazi by interpreting the law.
Provincial Courts (4 Types):
- Court of the Wali (Governor).
- Qazi-e-Suba (Provincial Judge).
- Diwan-e-Suba (Financial-legal matters).
- Sadr-e-Suba (religious matters).
Agriculture, Economy, and Industry
Agricultural Production:
- Major Crops: Wheat, barley, gram, pulses, cotton, oilseeds, and sugarcane.
- Two cropping seasons: Rabi and Kharif.
- Barley – Rajasthan; Rice – Eastern and Southern India.
- Renowned Regions:
- Sursati – Premium rice
- Dhar – Betel leaf (Pan)
- Tirhut – Oranges
- Hisar – Oilseeds and pulses
- Kara-Manikpur – Rice and sugar
- Bayana, Sarkhej – Indigo
- Bengal – Jute
- Devagiri – Betel leaf, grapes, pomegranates
Industry
1. Textile Industry
This was the oldest and most prominent industry of the era.
- Types of Fabrics: Produced cotton, wool, and silk. Coarse cloth was for the poor, while fine muslin (malmal) was for the elite.
- Major Centers: Bengal, Gujarat, Saliyur, and Calicut.
- Innovation: The Charkha (Spinning Wheel) was introduced from Iran between the $12^{th}$ and $14^{th}$ centuries, revolutionizing yarn production.
- Specialties: Devagiri was famous for extremely fine muslin. Silk industries flourished in Sonargaon and Murshidabad, while wool was sourced from Kashmir and Western Rajasthan.
2. Metallurgy & Other Industries
- Metal Centers: Ahmedabad, Delhi, Lahore, and Multan.
- Weaponry: Sialkot and Mewar were renowned for high-quality swords.
- Mining: Copper from Singhbhum (Bihar); pearls and diamonds from Daulatabad.
- New Industries:
- Paper: Introduced in the $13^{th}$ century (Gujarat/Bengal).
- Soap: Production scaled during Firoz Tughlaq’s reign.
- Sericulture: Silk-worm rearing and carpet weaving began during this period.
3. Trade and Commerce
Post-Arab invasions, trade saw a massive surge.
- Merchant Groups: Known as Tujjar-e-Khas.
- Anhilwara: Regarded as a “Pilgrimage for Merchants.”
- Multan: Served as the gateway for foreign traders.
- Trade Classes:
- Karwanis/Nayaks: Specialized in grain trade.
- Multanis: Handled long-distance international trade.
- Imports: Horses (top priority), slaves, weapons, and dry fruits.
- Exports: Cotton textiles, spices, indigo, sugar, and medicinal herbs.
Technological Advancements
- Irrigation: The Persian Wheel (Rahat) transformed agriculture by allowing deeper water extraction.
- Textiles: The Naddaf (Cotton-carder’s bow) improved fiber cleaning.
- First Evidence: Isami’s Futuh-us-Salatin (1350 AD) provides the first literary reference to the Charkha in India.
- Firoz Tughlaq’s Karkhanas (Workshops)
- Firoz Shah Tughlaq professionalized manufacturing through 36 Royal Karkhanas managed by Khwaja Abul Hasan.
- Ratibi (Fixed): Salaries/expenditure was fixed (e.g., Matwakh – Kitchen, Abdarkhana – Water stores).
- Ghair-Ratibi (Variable): Expenditure varied based on demand (e.g., Jamdarkhana—Wardrobe, Alamkhana). – Standards/Flags).
Famous Quotes:
- “The masons and stone-cutters of Delhi were famous throughout the entire Muslim world.” — Amir Khusrow
- “The Turkish conquest in North India initiated an ‘urban revolution.'” — Mohammad Habib
