LEARNING AND MOTIVATION

Learning and Motivation are core concepts in the field of Behaviour, helping us understand how individuals acquire new knowledge and what drives their actions. This topic explores key theories like Classical and Operant Conditioning, delves into the Model of Memory and Forgetting, and examines various methods for the Assessment of Motivation.

Previous year Questions

Year	Question	Marks
2023	Explain Forgetting due to trace decay.	2M
2023	Explain Sensory Memory.	2M
2023	Write any two characteristics of analytical style of learning.	2M
2021	Write about the three stages of memory.	2M
2018	What is the view of Bartlett on memory?	2M
2016Special	What do you understand by Retroactive Inhibition ?	2M
2016Special	Define Ebbinghaus Curve.	2M

To understand learning, consider this example: when a child touches a hot pan and gets burnt, they quickly pull back and learn to handle hot objects with care. This shows that learning is the process of modifying behavior through experience, practice, and effort.

According to Hilgard, Atkinson and Atkinson (1979), “Learning may be defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as the result of prior experience.”

There are some methods that are used in acquisition of simple responses while other methods are used in the acquisition of complex responses. The simplest kind of learning is called conditioning. Two types of conditioning have been identified. The first one is called classical conditioning, and the second instrumental/operant conditioning.

Classical Conditioning (Learning by association) –

Classical conditioning, first studied by Ivan Pavlov, explains how we learn through association. Pavlov noticed that dogs began salivating at the sight of an empty plate, anticipating food. To investigate further, he conducted an experiment where he rang a bell before serving food to the dogs. After several repetitions, the dogs started salivating just at the sound of the bell, even when no food was presented. In this process, the food is the Unconditioned Stimulus (US) that naturally causes salivation,the Unconditioned Response (UR). After conditioning, the bell becomes the Conditioned Stimulus (CS), and the salivation at the sound of the bell is the Conditioned Response (CR). This shows how a neutral stimulus (the bell) can trigger a learned response (salivation) through association with an unconditioned stimulus (food). Classical conditioning demonstrates how one stimulus (the bell) signals the presence of another (food), resulting in a learned behavior. This learning process is common in everyday life, such as when seeing a dessert after a meal triggers salivation, or when a child associates fear with a balloon after experiencing a loud noise when it bursts.

Operant conditioning (Learning by consequences)

B.F. Skinner’s operant conditioning was studied using the Skinner Box. In his experiment, a hungry rat was placed in a chamber with a lever. When the rat accidentally pressed the lever, a food pellet was released. Over repeated trials, the rat learned to press the lever quickly to get food. This form of learning, where behavior is shaped by its consequences, is called instrumental conditioning. The rat’s action of pressing the lever (operant response) was reinforced by receiving food (reinforcement). Examples of instrumental conditioning in everyday life include children learning to say “please” to get favours or figuring out how to operate devices. The process is influenced by the type and timing of reinforcement.

Classical conditioning	Operant conditioning
Introduced by Ivan Pavlov	Introduced by B F Skinner
The responses are under the control of some stimulus	responses are under the control of the organism and are voluntary responses or ‘operants
CS and US are well-defined	CS is not defined
The experimenter controls the occurrence of US (Food)	The occurrence of the reinforcer is under the control of the organism that is learning
Example: Pavlov’s dog experiment ; dog salivating to a bell	Example: Skinner’s Rat experiment; rat pressing a lever for a food reward

Types of learning: 

Observation learning: 

Observers acquire knowledge by observing the model’s behaviour, but performance is influenced by the model’s behaviour being rewarded or punished. For eg. Young children play games like marriage ceremonies or thief and policeman, imitating what they observe in society (called modelling) and media.

Cognitive Learning:

Some psychologists view learning in terms of cognitive processes (Learning by understanding, thinking, analyzing, and processing information) that underlie it. They have developed approaches that focus on such processes that occur during learning rather than concentrating solely on S-R and S-S connections, as we have seen in the case of classical and operant conditioning. Thus, in cognitive learning, there is a change in what the learner knows rather than what s/he does. This form of learning shows up in insight learning and latent learning.

Ex – Jean Piaget (Cognitive Development)

Verbal Learning: 

You are reading this content and trying to understand the concept of learning. This is possible because of verbal learning. You have learned language. People in different parts of the world learn different languages. The process of learning language is called verbal learning. 

Concept Learning: 

It is the process of grouping objects or events into categories based on shared features. For example, “boys,” “girls,” or “fruits” are concepts where different items are grouped together under a common label. This helps us communicate and understand the world more easily. Concepts can be concrete, like “cow” or “table,” or abstract, like “love” or “freedom.” More simply, lets take concept of “fruits”, apples, bananas, and oranges all fall under the category of fruits. Even though they look different, you understand they belong to the same group because they are edible, grow on plants, and are sweet.

Skill Learning: 

It involves acquiring various types of skills like riding a bicycle, writing, car driving, leading a group and motivating others etc. All of these involve skills. Those who are able to learn these and other skills get opportunities in life. Once the skill is acquired one may over learn it.

Styles of Learning

​​‘Learning styles’ refer to the fact that everyone learns in their own way. They describe how people take in and understand information. Sometimes, a method suggested by others might not work for you, but using your own approach helps you learn better. There are various instruments which are used to determine a student’s learning style.

1. Perceptual Modality – Refers to how we prefer to take in information based on our senses, like hearing (auditory), seeing (visual), touching (tactile), or moving (kinesthetic). It’s our biological reaction to the environment.
2. Information Processing – Is about how we think and solve problems. Some people are more active or reflective, while others prefer intuitive or logical methods, processing information in steps (sequential) or all at once (global).
3. Personality Patterns – Focus on how our personality influences the way we interact with our surroundings. It explains how we perceive, organize, and remember information based on our consistent personality traits.

Example – Seeing the red light on road (Perceptual modality) ➡️ Interpret red light means stop (Information processing)  ➡️ If obedient personality (Stop) 

There are several dimensions along which learning styles differ. For example, Anderson differentiated between Analytic and Relational styles of learning. 

Difference between Analytic and Relational styles

Relational Style	Analytical Style
* Perceive information as part of total picture (“Big picture” thinkers) * Example: When looking at a painting, they focus on the theme or feeling, not just objects.	* Able to disembed information from total picture (focus on detail) * Example: They will notice the brush strokes or technique in that same painting.
* Exhibit intuitive thinking * Ex – This solution ‘feels’ right	* Exhibit sequential and structured thinking * Ex – Solve problems using logic, formulas, and sequences
* Learn materials that have a human, social content and are characterised by experiential/cultural relevance more easily * Ex – Subjects like history through stories	* Learn materials that are inanimate and impersonal more easily * Ex – Likes subjects like mathematics, physics, or logic puzzles
* Have a good memory for verbally presented ideas and information, especially if relevant * Ex – Better in debates	* Have a good memory for abstract ideas and irrelevant information * Ex – Scientific theorems and discoveries
* Are more task-oriented concerning non-academic areas * Ex – Organizing school events	* Are more task-oriented concerning academics * Ex – Scoring high marks and completing homework
* Are influenced by authority figures expression of confidence or doubt in students ability	* Are not greatly affected by the opinions of others
* Prefer to withdraw from unstimulating task performance	* Show ability to persist unstimulating task
* Style conflicts with the traditional school environment	* Style matches most school environments

It is clear that people with a relational style learn material best through exposure to a full unit or phenomenon. They comprehend parts of the unit only by understanding their relationship to the whole. On the other hand, people with an analytical learning style learn more easily when information is presented step by step in a cumulative sequential pattern that builds towards a conceptual understanding.

Fleming’s VARK model of learning : 

VARK is an acronym that refers to the four types of learning styles: Visual, Auditory, Reading/Writing Preference, and Kinesthetic.        

1. Visual learners prefer the use of images, maps and graphic organizers to access and understand new information. 
   • Ex – Learning heart functioning through diagram
2. Auditory learners best understand new content through listening and speaking in situations such as lectures and group discussions. 
   • Ex – Learning heart functioning through podcast or lecture
3. Learners with a strong reading/writing preference learn best through words. These learners are able to translate abstract concepts into words and essays.
   • Ex – Learning heart functioning through textbook
4. Kinesthetic learners best understand information through tactile representation of information. They learn best through figuring things out by hand.
   • Ex – Learning heart functioning through practical (making 3D heart in lab or dissecting a frog heart)

Model of Memory

The word “Memory” originates from the Latin term ‘memoria’ and ‘memor’, meaning “mindful” and “remembering” respectively. Model of memory refers to the ability to retain information and reproduce it over a period of time when required to perform a cognitive task. It has been conceptualised as a process comprising three stages;

1. Encoding – It is the first stage which refers to a process by which information is recorded and registered for the first time so that it becomes usable by our memory system.
2. Storage – It is the second stage of memory. Information which was encoded must also be stored so that it can be put to use later.
3. Retrieval – It is the third stage of memory. It refers to locating and bringing the stored material information to one’s awareness when required to complete a task.

All information received by our senses goes through these stages. However, any issue or hindrance in the completion of any of these stages can lead to memory failure.

Types Of Memory

There is no single region in the brain responsible for memory, instead different parts of the brain are responsible for memories of different types.

Declarative or Explicit Memory:

It refers to that memory system which can be controlled consciously and for which we are aware of in some form. It generally declines with age. Recalling the name of a friend, remembering a contact number or ATM pin involves declarative memory.

• Working memory – It is considered as a benchmark of consciousness and responsible for processing and storing of information needed for immediate use.
  • eg. you hold the 10‑digit sequence in mind just long enough to enter it. Following multi‑step directions: “Turn left, go two blocks, then enter the connection center
• Semantic memory – It stores knowledge about the world, facts, concepts, logic, and meaning associated with the words or symbols
  • Ex – Remembering definitions, chemical reaction etc 
• Episodic memory – It is associated with our experiences/life events. It is used to recall past events, such as, how did you celebrate your last birthday? Recollecting your first day at school Etc 

Non-declarative or Implicit Memory:

That system of memory for which we pose no awareness. It works unconsciously and without any efforts and intentions. It is unaffected by aging.

• Ex – Riding a bicycle, Typing on a keyboard without looking at the keys

Sensory Memory:

Sensory memory, which is also known as ‘fleeting memory’ sometimes, is closely related to the process of perception. It is responsible for keeping a record of our perception for a very brief period of time. The information from the environment first reaches sensory memory and if required attention is given to the information, it moves to other memory systems. It can store information only for 200-500 milliseconds.

• Ex – You touch a hot surface briefly and instantly pull back

Long-Term Memory (LTM) – has no storage limits and one can remember information for days, months, years. It is categorised into two main types: Declarative Memory and Procedural Memory.

Declarative Memory

Endel Tulving has proposed yet another classification and has suggested that the declarative memory can either be Episodic or Semantic. It is responsible for facts and events that can be verbally expressed. It includes:

• Episodic Memory: Personal life experiences, like remembering how you felt when you won a prize.
• Semantic Memory: General world knowledge, such as knowing that a frog is an amphibian or India became independent on August 15, 1947.

Procedural Memory

stores skills and tasks that are difficult to explain verbally, such as how to ride a bicycle or make tea.

Stage Model of Memory

This was the first model of memory, which was proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin in 1968. It is also known as the Traditional Model of Memory. There are three memory systems : the Sensory Memory(SM), the Short-term Memory(STM) and the Long-term Memory(LTM).

Memory operates in three main stages: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). Sensory memory briefly holds information from the senses with high accuracy for less than a second, such as visual or auditory after-images. If attended to, this information moves to short-term memory, which holds a limited amount of data (for about 30 seconds). Information in STM is primarily encoded through sound and is fragile, easily lost without rehearsal. Maintenance rehearsal,  Chunking (remembering digits 194719851999 in chunks 1947, 1985, 1999) methods are used to expand the capacity of STM. Finally, information that survives STM transitions into long-term memory, which has vast capacity and stores information permanently. Forgetting in LTM is typically due to retrieval failure, not loss of the memory itself, as information is semantically encoded.

Characteristics	Sensory Memory	Short-term Memory	Long-term Memory
Duration	Iconic about ½ sec, Echoic about 2 sec	20 seconds	Lifetime
Capacity	Large	7 ± 2 chunks	Unlimited
Forgetting	Trace decay	Decay, interference, and displacementEx: you forget the first digits if a second list is given immediately after	Interference, decay, lack of cues
Encoding	Sensory (visual), (auditory)	Phonological or visual-semantic	Semantic and sensory
Retrieval	Parallel search	Serial exhaustive search	Parallel distributed search

Level of Processing Model of Memory

The levels of processing (LOP) view was proposed by Craik and Lockhart in 1972. This model refutes the claim of the Atkinson and Shiffrin model that memory consists of the different subsystems. According to it, whether the information will be retrieved successfully or not depends on its level of processing. This model outlines three levels of processing: 

1. Shallow Processing (Physical/Structural Features): At the most basic level, we focus on the physical appearance of the information, such as the shape of letters in a word. For example, noticing whether the word “cat” is written in capital or small letters. This results in weak and easily forgettable memories.
2. Intermediate Processing (Phonetic Features): At this level, we focus on the sound or phonetic elements of the information. For instance, recognizing that “cat” has three specific letters that form a word. This level creates somewhat stronger, but still fragile, memories.
3. Deep Processing (Semantic Features): The deepest level of processing involves understanding the meaning of the information. For example, thinking of “cat” as an animal with specific characteristics like fur, legs, and tail, or connecting it with personal experiences. This level of processing leads to long-lasting memories that resist forgetting.

Conclusively, the more deeply we process and understand information, especially by relating it to meaning and personal experiences, the better we can retain it for the long term. This model emphasizes the importance of focusing on understanding, rather than rote memorization, for effective learning.

The Integrative Model: Working Memory

The Integrative Model: Working Memory explains that short-term memory (STM), as proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin, was initially seen as a simple storage system. However, later studies revealed that STM is dynamic and involved in manipulating information for cognitive tasks like learning, reasoning, and comprehension. This led to the concept of Working Memory (WM), introduced by Baddeley and Hitch in 1974.

Working Memory is defined as a system with limited capacity that temporarily stores and manipulates information for complex tasks. It has four main components:

1. Central Executive: Acts as the control centre, regulating and coordinating operations between the subordinate systems (phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer). It also decides which information will be stored in long-term memory and which will fade.
2. Phonological Loop: Handles verbal and auditory information, storing it for a few seconds unless rehearsed. It includes:
   • Phonological Store: Holds verbal information briefly.
   • Articulatory Rehearsal Process: Rehearses information to prevent it from decaying.
3. Visuospatial Sketchpad: Stores visual and spatial information, like forming mental images while solving puzzles or imagining a scene from a story.
4. Episodic Buffer: Integrates information from the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and long-term memory to create a cohesive representation of the information.

Thus, Working Memory not only stores information but also actively manipulates it to complete cognitive tasks, making it more dynamic than the traditional view of STM.

Forgetting

We are unable to retrieve what we had learned during examinations. Why does this occur? This happens  because of forgetting. According to psychologists, forgetting is our inability to recall already encoded and stored information from our memory system.

Ebbinghaus’s Curve of Forgetting – 

Hermann Ebbinghaus was the first to systematically study forgetting by memorizing lists of nonsense syllables (CVC trigrams like NOK or SEP) and measuring how long it took him to relearn the lists after varying time intervals. His observations led to the creation of the forgetting curve.

This curve shows that forgetting happens most rapidly within the first nine hours, especially within the first hour. After that, the rate of forgetting slows significantly, and very little additional information is forgotten after several days. Despite the simplicity of his methods, Ebbinghaus’s findings are foundational in memory research, showing a sharp initial drop in memory followed by a gradual decline.

Causes of Forgetting

Decay & Disuse theory:

• Learning causes change in the central nervous system leading to the formation of ‘Memory Traces’ – physical change in the brain due to learning.
• When these memory traces are not used for a long time, they fade away leading to forgetting.
• Thus, this theory is “use it or lose it”
• This theory has been proven inadequate on several grounds. If forgetting occurs due to the decay of memory traces from disuse, then people who sleep after memorizing should forget more compared to those who stay awake, since there is no way to use memory traces during sleep. However, the results show the opposite. Those who remain awake after memorizing show more forgetting than those who sleep.

Interference theory: 

• Forgetting occurs due to interface with previous memories.
• interference can be of two types-
  • Proactive Interference (Pro=forward) – Forgetting of newly acquired information due to interference from previously learned information. 
  • Retroactive Interference (Retro=backward) – Forgetting of previously stored information due to learning of new information.

Retrieval failure theory:

• Proposed by Tuliving
• Brown and Mcneil coined the term Tip of the tongue phenomenon. 
• The information can’t be recalled due to lack of some retrieval cures.
• Retrieval cues are aids which help us in recovering information stored in the memory. 

Motivated forgetting theory:

• Proposed by Sigmond Freud.
• According to this, “we forget what we want to forget.”
• Refers to the process in which a person unconsciously or intentionally represses memories that may be painful, traumatic, or uncomfortable. 
• It can be seen as a defence mechanism that helps individuals cope with disturbing thoughts.

Encoding failure Model:

• Poor encoding of information leads to end-up in Short term memory(STM) and doesn’t reach long term memory (LTM).
• There could be many reasons for this, such as shallow or superficial processing of information, lack of focus, stress or anxiety, etc.

Consolidated failure theory:

• This theory, proposed by George Muller and Alphons Pilzecker in 1900.
• Consolidation means the process of memorisation by which information gets stored in memory.
• Memory consolidation occurs when memories are stabilized by protecting them from interference. Once a memory is fully consolidated, it becomes resistant to forgetting
• Due to poor processing of information,We forget. 

Assessment of Motivation

According to Fred Luthans, “Motivation is a process that starts with a physiological or psychological deficiency or need that activates a behaviour which is aimed at a goal.” Motivation assessment refers to the process of evaluating what drives individuals to take certain actions, make decisions, or choose one option over another. It aims to uncover a person’s interests, desires, and preferences. By assessing these aspects, we can better understand what motivates individuals to achieve specific goals or meet certain expectations.

Key Components in Motivation Assessment:

• Individual Interests: Understanding what people naturally gravitate towards in terms of activities, subjects, or tasks.
• Desires and Preferences: Identifying personal goals, aspirations, and what a person values, which gives insight into their motivations.
• Commitment to Expectations: Motivation is assessed based on how individuals commit to meeting certain demands or expectations in their environment.

Types of Motivation to Assess:

• Intrinsic Motivation: This is the internal drive to perform activities for their inherent satisfaction or enjoyment. For instance, reading a book because it brings joy.
  • Assessment Tools: Interest inventories or personal interviews can be used to gauge intrinsic motivations.
• Extrinsic Motivation: External factors such as rewards, recognition, or punishment that influence an individual’s actions. For example, working for a promotion or bonus.
  • Assessment Tools: Behavioural observation and self-reports to assess responses to rewards or external stimuli.

Motivation Theories Supporting Assessment:

(We have thoroughly covered these theories in GS-1 Management )

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs:

This theory suggests that individuals are motivated by a hierarchy of needs, starting from basic needs (physiological, safety) to higher-level needs (self-actualization). Assessing where an individual lies on this pyramid can help understand their current motivations.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory:

Herzberg distinguished between factors that lead to job satisfaction (motivators) and those that lead to dissatisfaction (hygiene factors). Understanding this can guide motivation assessment in workplace settings.

Self-Determination Theory (SDT):

SDT focuses on three basic needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness. A motivation assessment can gauge how well these needs are being met and how they drive an individual’s behavior.

Assessment Methods:

• Self-Report Questionnaires: They are a common assessment tool in clinical psychology and can be used to assess personality traits, characteristics, and other qualities. For Eg. MMPI, EPQ, 16 P.F, NEOP-R etc.
• Behavioural Observations: Observing how individuals engage in tasks, whether driven by internal satisfaction or external rewards, helps assess their motivation style. For Eg. Observation, Situational Tests etc.
• Interviews and Focused Discussions:Structured or semi-structured interviews can help uncover deep-seated motivations by asking open-ended questions about goals, desires, and aspirations.
• Performance Tasks: In educational or workplace settings, analyzing task completion under different motivational conditions (e.g., with rewards or without) can give insight into motivational drivers.

Assessing motivation is critical for understanding behaviour, as it plays a central role in influencing decision-making, task engagement, and goal-oriented behaviour. It has applications in various fields, including education, work environments, and therapy.