Post Independent Nation Building (up to 2000)

Post Independent Nation Building (up to 2000) is an important topic in Modern Indian History that explains India’s political, economic, and social development after independence. It covers constitution making, integration of princely states, five-year plans, foreign policy, and major national developments up to the year 2000.

Modern India After Independence (Up to 2000)

Independence & India After 1947

• August 15, 1947 marked the end of British colonial rule.
• Jawaharlal Nehru, as first Prime Minister, delivered historic speech:
  • “Tryst with Destiny” speech.
• Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel:
  • Deputy Prime Minister
  • Served till his death in December 1950.
• Governor-Generals:
  • Lord Mountbatten (till 1948)
  • C. Rajagopalachari (till January 26, 1950).

Council of Ministers

Minister	Portfolio / Details
Jawaharlal Nehru	Prime Minister
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel	Deputy Prime Minister; Home Affairs; Information & Broadcasting; States
Maulana Abul Kalam Azad	Education
John Mathai	Railways & Transport
Sardar Baldev Singh	Defence
Jagjivan Ram	Labour
C.H. Bhabha	Commerce
Amrit Kaur	Health
Rafi Ahmad Kidwai	Communications
N.V. Gadgil	Works, Mines & Power
R.K. Shanmukham Chetty	Finance
K.C. Neogy	Relief & Rehabilitation
B.R. Ambedkar	Law; Member of Scheduled Castes Federation; Resigned in 1951
Shyama Prasad Mookherjee	Industries & Supplies; Hindu Mahasabha; First to resign (April 1950)
N.G. Ayyangar	Minister without Portfolio; Liaison between Union Govt. and East Punjab Govt.
Mohanlal Saxena	Minister without Portfolio

Integration of Princely States

Background

• Revival of State People’s Movements (1946–47).
• Nehru warned hostile treatment for states refusing to join.
• The States Department was established in July 1947 to deal with issues related to princely states.
• Vallabhbhai Patel headed States Department.

Phase I (Before 15 August 1947)

• Accession was limited to Defence, External affairs, Communications.
• Princes retained internal autonomy.

Phase II (After 15 August 1947)

• Full integration into Provinces or new unions (Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, etc.).
• Constitutional changes introduced.
• Incentives were given in the form of Privy purses and positions as governors or rajpramukhs.
• Patel’s greatest achievement.

Plebiscite and Army Action –

Junagarh

• Ruler: Nawab Muhammad Mahabat Khanji 3 
• Population: Hindu majority
• Nawab wanted to join Pakistan
• People wanted to join India
• Nawab adopted repressive measures, his dewan  support his decision to accede to Pakistan.
• Plebiscite held (Feb 1948).
• Result:
  • Decision in favour of India.

 Hyderabad

• Ruler: Nizam Mir Osman Ali 
• Demanded sovereign status
• Signed Standstill Agreement with India (November 1947)
• Razakkars (Nizam’s militia) became extremist , suppressed opposition to Nizam.
• Factors leading to intervention of Indian govt –
  • Violence
  • Foreign arms supply
• Indian Army action (1948): Operation Polo 
  • Described as “police action”
• Hyderabad accede:
  • (Sep 1948)

Kashmir

• Jammu & Kashmir:
  • Hindu ruler
  • Muslim-majority population

• Maharaja Hari Singh wanted:
  • Sovereign status.
• Delayed accession
• Pakistan:
  • Sent forces disguised as tribal militia
  • Advanced towards Srinagar
• Instrument of Accession:
  • Signed 26 October 1947
  • Accession to India
  • Supported by Sheikh Abdullah
• Indian troops sent to repel raiders
• India approached UN Security Council.
• India offered: Plebiscite
• Outcome:
  • Ceasefire
  • 84,000 sq km or 1/3rd  under Pakistani control.

Constituent  Assembly and  Making of the Constitution of India

Demand for Constituent Assembly –

• First demanded by M.N. Roy.
• There had been deliberations over the constitution making for a long time as a continuous process, for example – Swaraj Bill of 1895, Commonwealth of India Bill 1925, Nehru Report 1928, Karachi Proposal 1934 and, Sapru Committee Report of 1944.
• Congress officially adopted demand in 1934.
• Lucknow Session (1936):
  • Rejected any constitution imposed externally.
• Cripps Proposal (1942):
  • Accepted principle of Constituent Assembly.
• Cabinet Mission (1946):
  • Proposed Constituent Assembly + Interim Government.

Constituent Assembly of India 

• The Constituent Assembly was to be elected indirectly.
• Allocation of Seats –
  • Seats allotted on the basis of population.
  • One member per one million population.
• Members were elected by Provincial Legislative Assemblies.
  • Provincial Assemblies were elected under the Government of India Act, 1935.
  • Franchise under 1935 Act was restricted by:
    • Tax qualifications
    • Property qualifications
    • Educational qualifications
  • More than 70% of adult population excluded from voting.
• Seats of each province were divided among three communities:
  • Muslims
  • Sikhs
  • General (Hindus and others excluding Muslims and Sikhs)
• Method of Election –
  • Members elected by representatives of each community in the provincial legislatures.
  • Proportional Representation system was used.
  • Voting method: Single Transferable Vote (STV).
  • Representatives of princely states were to be nominated by their rulers.
• Jawaharlal Nehru became Prime Minister of the Interim Government.

Note – Muslim League Boycotted it, Jinnah withdrew acceptance of the Constituent Assembly. 

First Session of the Constituent Assembly

• Assembly first met on 9 December 1946 in Constitution Hall, New Delhi.
• Objectives Resolution was moved by Jawaharlal Nehru on 13 December 1946.
• Provisional President was Dr Sachchidanand Sinha.
• Permanent President of the assembly was Dr Rajendra Prasad
• Total members: 389
  • British India: 296
  • Princely states: 93
• Congress won:
  • 208 seats
  • Won all General seats except 9
• Muslim League:
  • 73 seats
  • Won all Muslim seats except 5
• Princely states:
  • Initially boycotted
  • By August 1947 Joined gradually.

Making of constitution 

• B.N. Rau submitted first draft by October 1947:
  • 240 clauses 
  • 13 schedules
• Drafting Committee
  • Chairman: Dr B.R. Ambedkar, Independent 
  • Members:
    • K.M. Munshi, Congress
    • Alladi Krishnaswami Iyer, Independent 
    • N. Gopalaswami Ayyangar
    • B.L. Mitra → replaced by N. Madhava Rao/Rau, Independent 
    • Sayyid Mohammad Sadullah, member of the Muslim League
    • D.P. Khaitan, Independent  → replaced by T.T. Krishnamachari,Congress 
• Tej Bahadur Sapru and Jayaprakash Narayan were also invited as members of the Constituent Assembly.
  • But Sapru could not accept it due to health reasons. 
  • Jayaprakash Narayan did not accept the proposal.
• Process – 
  • On November 15, 1948 to January 8th 1949  the Constituent Assembly took up article-by-article discussion. The Constituent Assembly had deliberated upon 67 articles. This is called the ‘first reading’ of the Constitution. 
  • The ‘second reading’ ended on November 16, 1949. 
  • The ‘third reading’ continued until November 26th, 1949 and the Draft Constitution was finally adopted by the Constituent Assembly.
  • There were 3 copies, the first one was in English, the second one was a printed copy in English and the third one was in Hindi.
  • After the members affixed their signatures to copies of the Constitution, with the rendition of “Jana-gana-mana” and “Vande Matram”, the ‘Sabha’ was dissolved as the Constituent Assembly. On January 26, 1950, the Constituent Assembly became the (interim) Parliament of the Republic of India.

Adoption of Constitution 

• On 26 November 1949 Dr Ambedkar moved motion for adoption.
  • Constitution adopted, enacted, and given by the people to themselves.
  • Signed by Dr Rajendra Prasad, President of the Assembly.
  • 284 members (out of 299) signed the Constitution on 24 January 1950.
• 24 January 1950 marked the last day of the Constituent Assembly.
• Preamble was adopted at last.
• Time taken:
  • 2 years, 11 months, 18 days.

Other Functions of Assembly –

• Adopted:
  • National Flag – July 22, 1947
  • National Anthem & Song – Jan 24, 1950
• Elected:
  • Dr Rajendra Prasad as first President.
• Functioned as:
  • Provisional Parliament till 1952 elections.
• Note – 
  • The largest committee of the Constituent Assembly (by membership) was the advisory Committee on Fundamental Rights, Minorities, and Tribal and Excluded Areas.
  • Masuda and Kharwa were two princely states under Ajmer for which Sardar Patel cancelled the decision of merger for.

Language Policy and Linguistic Reorganisation of States

Language Policy

• Gandhi promoted Hindustani for integration; Nehru supported gradual transition to Hindi.
• Compromise formula (Constituent Assembly):
  • Hindi (Devanagari script) = official language
  • English continued for 15 years
• Official Languages Act 1963: Hindi to become official language ; English as “associate official language” without a fixed end date.

 Linguistic Reorganisation of States – 

• Initial opposition: Congress opposed linguistic states to maintain national unity.
• Early developments:
  • 1948: Dhar Commission opposed linguistic states.
  • 1948: JVP Committee (Nehru, Patel, Sitaramayya) also against linguistic states.
• Telugu movement:
  • Potti Sriramulu fasted for 56 days → Andhra state created (Oct 1, 1953).
• States Reorganisation Commission (SRC), 1953: 
  • Fazal Ali Commission 
  • Members – K.M. Pannikar and Hriday Nath 
  • Recommendations –
    • Factors considered for state reorganisation are unity and security, linguistic and cultural homogeneity and financial, economic and administrative considerations.
  • Kunjaru Submitted report in 1955 → implemented via States Reorganisation Act, 1956.
  • The Commission recommended the formation of 16 States and 3 Union territories.
  • State Reorganization Act was passed in 1956, resulting in 14 States and 6 Union territories.
• Note – 
  • The first linguistic movement started in 1886 in Odisha. 
  • The movement finally achieved its purpose in 1936 when Orissa province became the first Indian state to be organized on the basis of common languages ​​due to the efforts of Madhusudan Das, the father of Odia nationalism.

Political developments in India after independence

First General Elections (1951–52) 

•  Election Commission set up on:
  • 25 January 1950
• First Chief Election Commissioner:
  • Sukumar Sen (ICS officer)
  • Assumed office on 21 March 1950

Seats and Reservation –

Lok Sabha

• Total seats to be filled by election: 489
• Reserved seats:
  • 72 for Scheduled Castes
  • 26 for Scheduled Tribes
• Total constituencies: 401
• Types of constituencies:
  • 314 single-member
  • 86 double-member
  • 1 three-member

State Legislative Assemblies 

• Total seats: 3,283
• Reserved seats:
  • 477 for Scheduled Castes
  • 192 for Scheduled Tribes

Some important Political Parties –

• Syama Prasad Mukherjee:
  • Founded Bharatiya Jana Sangh (BJS) in October 1951.
• Dr. B. R. Ambedkar:
  • Revived the Scheduled Castes Federation
  • Later renamed the Republican Party
• J. B. (Acharya) Kripalani:
  • Former Congress leader
  • Founded Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party (KMPP)
• Ram Manohar Lohia and Jayaprakash Narayan:
  • Leading forces behind the Socialist Party
• Communist Party
• Swatantra Party (1959): Conservative, anti-socialist, laissez-faire economic policy; led by C. Rajagopalachari, Minoo Masani, N.G. Ranga, K.M. Munshi.
  • Industrialists and businessmen, Landlords and princes, Rich and middle peasants, Some retired civil servants.
  • In 1962, it won 18 Lok Sabha seats. 
• According to the Election Commission 14 were national parties during the first general elections. 

Results – Lok Sabha

• Indian National Congress won majority.
• Communist Party of India, Socialist Party, Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party (KMPP), Bharatiya Jana Sangh (BJS) and Independents also won some seats. 
• Prominent Defeats
  • Dr. B. R. Ambedkar:
    • Lost from Bombay (North Central) reserved constituency
    • Later entered Parliament via Rajya Sabha
  • Acharya Kripalani:
    • Lost from Faizabad (UP)
  • Sucheta Kripalani:
    • Won from Delhi
    • Defeated Congress candidate Manmohini Sahgal

Formation of First Lok Sabha

• Results declared and Lok Sabha constituted on 2 April 1952
• Until then:
  • Constituent Assembly functioned as interim legislature
• First Speaker was G.V. Mavlankar.

State Legislature Election Result 

• Congress Formed governments in all states
• Congress Did not secure absolute majority in:
  • Madras
  • Travancore-Cochin
  • Orissa
  • PEPSU
• Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India, passed away on 27 May 1964.
• Note – 
  • In 1957, CPI formed a government in Kerala under E.M.S. Namboodiripad. Shift from congress.
  • First communist government formed through elections.
• In July 1959, the EMS government was dismissed and President’s Rule imposed. First imposition of President rule. 

Lal Bahadur Shastri 

• He became the second Prime Minister of India after Nehru’s death.
  • Served as Prime Minister from 9 June 1964 to 11 January 1966.
• Lal Bahadur Shastri largely followed Nehru’s foreign policy approach.
• Shastri strengthened relations with South-East Asian neighbouring countries.
• In 1965, conflict broke out over the Rann of Kutch in Gujarat.
  • Pakistan launched Operation Gibraltar, infiltrating forces into Kashmir.
  • India responded effectively, and the war ended in September 1965.
  • With Soviet mediation by Alexei Kosygin, the Tashkent Declaration was signed on 10 January 1966.
  • The declaration was signed by Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and Pakistani President Ayub Khan.
  • Shastri gave the slogan “Jai Jawan, Jai Kisan” to motivate soldiers and farmers.

Indira Gandhi 

She became the Prime Minister of India after Lal Bahadur Shastri.

• In 1971, a Constitutional Amendment was passed to abolish privy purses of former princely states.
• On 3 July 1972, the Shimla Agreement was signed between Indira Gandhi and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto.
  • Both countries agreed to resolve disputes bilaterally without external or UN intervention.
  • The Shimla Agreement was significant foreign policy success.
• A State of Emergency was proclaimed on June 25–26, 1975 under Article 352(1). The Emergency formally ended on March 21, 1977.
• Education was moved to the Concurrent List by the 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976.
• The Indo-Soviet Treaty of Friendship was a major achievement of her foreign policy.

Morarji Desai – 

• Morarji Desai became Prime Minister after the 1977 elections.
• Chaudhary Charan Singh also later became Prime Minister during this period.
• Morarji Desai introduced the policy of demonetisation.

First Backward Classes Commission 

• On 29 January 1953, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru constituted this.
• The commission was chaired by Kaka Kalelkar.
• The Kalelkar Commission submitted its report on 30 March 1955.
• The recommendations of the Kalelkar Commission remained largely ineffective.

Mandal Commission

• On 20 December 1978, the Morarji Desai government announced a new Backward Classes Commission.
• The commission was headed by Bindeshwari Prasad Mandal, former Chief Minister of Bihar.
• The Mandal Commission evaluated castes on social, educational and economic criteria.
• The Commission identified 3,743 backward castes in India.
• The Mandal Commission finalized its report on 12 December 1980.
• By the time the report was submitted, the Morarji Desai government had collapsed.
• The Mandal Commission recommended 27% reservation in government jobs for Other Backward Classes (OBCs).
• V.P. Singh implemented Mandal Commission recommendations with certain modifications.

Indira Gandhi – 

• In the general election of 1980, Indira Gandhi returned to power with a massive majority.
• In her second term, Indira Gandhi hosted the 9th Asian Games in New Delhi (1982).
• India also hosted the 7th Non-Aligned Summit in New Delhi in 1983.
• Operation Meghdoot in April 1984 against Pakistan in Siachen. 
• Operation Blue Star was conducted to curb terrorism in Punjab from 3 June to 8 June 1984.
• On 31 October 1984, Indira Gandhi was assassinated by her own security personnel.

The period from 1965 to 1984 saw the leadership of Lal Bahadur Shastri, Indira Gandhi, Morarji Desai, and Chaudhary Charan Singh. 

Rajiv Gandhi –

• Rajiv Gandhi became the Prime Minister of India from 1984 to 1989.
• His birth anniversary, 20 August, is observed as Goodwill Day, Harmony Day, and Rajiv Gandhi Akshay Urja Diwas.
• He initiated economic reforms and strengthened India’s relations with the USA and the Soviet Union.
• He is credited with launching the communication and IT revolution in India.
  • Sam Pitroda, born in Odisha, played a pioneering role in India’s telecom revolution.
  • He established C-DOT (Centre for Development of Telematics) in August 1984 as an autonomous organization in India.
  • Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Limited (MTNL) was set up in 1986 for telecom services in Delhi and Mumbai.
  • Computer literacy programmes were introduced at school level on a large scale.
• The 52nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1985 added the Tenth Schedule and introduced the Anti-Defection Law.
• Through the 61st Constitutional Amendment Act, 1989, the voting age was reduced to 18 years (from 21 years).
• Rajiv Gandhi played an important role in the formation of SAARC.
  • SAARC was established on 7–8 December 1985 in Dhaka, Bangladesh.
  • The first SAARC summit was held in Dhaka.
• Education Reforms – 
  • The National Education Policy (NEP) 1986 was formulated during his tenure.
  • In September 1985, the Ministry of Education was renamed the Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD).
  • Educational facilities for Scheduled Castes were to be expanded using National Rural Employment Programme (NREP) and Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP).
  • Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU), established in 1985.
  • District Institutes of Education and Training (DIETs) were established.
  • Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas were established in 1985 by Rajiv Gandhi.
• Note – 
  • The National Telecom Policy, 1994 ensured telephone on demand and affordable quality services.
  • Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) was established in 1997.
  • The National Telecom Policy, 1999 focused on world-class telecom infrastructure development.
  • Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (BSNL) was established in 2000.

Vishwanath Pratap  – 

• After the General Elections of 1989, Vishwanath Pratap Singh, leader of the National Front,  became the 8th Prime Minister of India.
• His tenure as Prime Minister was about 11 months.
• He implemented the Mandal Commission recommendations.
• Ujjwal Singh, Chairman of the All India Anti-Reservation Front, challenged this in the Supreme Court.
  • The Supreme Court’s nine-judge Constitution Bench, On 16 November 1992, upheld the implementation of Mandal Commission recommendations and fixed the maximum reservation limit at 50%.
• After the judgment, the government issued notification granting 27% reservation to OBCs in jobs.

Pamulapati Venkata Narasimha Rao – 

• He became the 9th Prime Minister of India (1991–1996).
• He Along with Finance Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh, introduced liberalization, privatization and globalization.
• Narasimha Rao is considered the Father of Indian Economic Reforms.
• During his tenure, India’s nuclear and missile programs gained momentum.
• Terrorism in Punjab was effectively eliminated during his tenure.

Atal Bihari Vajpayee –

• First became Prime Minister on 16 May 1996, but his government collapsed after 13 days due to lack of majority.
• After this, a United Front government was formed, led successively by H.D. Deve Gowda and Inder Kumar Gujral.
• The Inder Kumar Gujral government introduced the Gujral Doctrine, aimed at improving and harmonizing relations with India’s neighbouring countries.
• Vajpayee became Prime Minister again on 19 March 1998.
• After winning the 1999 general elections, he remained Prime Minister until 22 March 2004.
• India conducted Pokhran-II nuclear tests in 1998.
  •  Codenamed – Operation Shakti 
  • Under the leadership of Dr. R. Chidambaram.
  • A total of three underground nuclear tests were carried out on 1 May and 13 May 1998.
  • Vajpayee gave the slogan “Jai Jawan, Jai Kisan, Jai Vigyan” after the nuclear tests.
  • India adopted a nuclear doctrine based on credible minimum deterrence and a “No First Use” policy.
• The Golden Quadrilateral National Highway Project was launched in 2001 to improve connectivity across India.
• The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan was also implemented.
• Special efforts were made to strengthen relations with Non-Resident Indians (NRIs) and the Indian diaspora.
• The Delhi–Lahore bus service (Sada-e-Sarhad) was inaugurated in February 1999.
• Prime Ministers of both countries signed the Lahore Declaration during Vajpayee’s visit to Lahore.
  • The declaration condemned terrorism, reaffirmed the Shimla Agreement, and supported non-interference in internal affairs.
• The Kargil War was fought between India and Pakistan in 1999 in the Kargil district of Jammu and Kashmir.
  • Pakistani soldiers infiltrated Indian territory and occupied strategic positions on high mountain peaks along the Line of Control.
  • Indian soldiers had to fight from lower and difficult terrain under extremely harsh conditions.
  • India achieved victory in the Kargil War on 26 July 1999 under “Operation Vijay.”

Nationalist Foreign Policy

• Founding member of before independence –
  • League of Nations
  • International Labour Organisation (ILO)
  • International Court of Justice
• After independence:
  • Nehru regarded as architect of India’s foreign policy.
  • Panchsheel (1954)
    • Panchsheel was first formally articulated on 29 April 1954 as an agreement between India and China regarding Tibet.
    • The Panchsheel principles were jointly announced by Jawaharlal Nehru and Chinese Premier Chou En-lai.
    • Five Principles
      • Mutual respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity
      • Mutual non-aggression
      • Mutual non-interference
      • Equality and mutual benefit
      • Peaceful coexistence
  • Non-Alignment Movement 
    • Nehru’s efforts led to the Afro-Asian Conference held in 1955 at Bandung, Indonesia
    • The Bandung Conference laid the foundation of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM).
    • Founding Leaders of NAM
      • Jawaharlal Nehru (India)
      • Josip Broz Tito (Yugoslavia)
      • Gamal Abdel Nasser (Egypt)
      • Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana)
      • Sukarno (Indonesia)
    • The first summit of the Non-Aligned Movement was held in 1961 at Belgrade, Yugoslavia.
  • India signed the Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT) of 1963 without delay.
  • India did not sign the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) of 1968 due to its discriminatory nature.

Indo-Bangla Relations 

• The Indo-Pak War of 1971 resulted in the creation of Bangladesh as an independent nation.
• India signed the Indo – Soviet treaty of peace, friendship and cooperation on 9 August 1971.
• Albert Ekka and Major Hoshiar Singh was awarded the Param Vir Chakra.
• India’s victory over Pakistan in the 1971 war is commemorated every year as Vijay Diwas on 16 December.
• Indo-Bangla Treaty of Friendship –
  • In 1972, Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and Bangladeshi Prime Minister Sheikh Mujibur Rahman signed a 25-year treaty.
• Muhuri River boundary dispute
  • The Muhuri River flows between India and Bangladesh. The river originates in Tripura. 
  • In 1974, an agreement fixed the middle line of the Muhuri River as the Tripura–Noakhali boundary.
• Teesta Water Treaty 
  • In 1983, India and Bangladesh signed a Teesta water-sharing agreement.
  • The agreement provided for ad hoc sharing of water during the dry season.
  • The Teesta agreement was temporary in nature.
• Ganga water-sharing treaty
  • In 1996, a 30-year Ganga water-sharing treaty was signed at Farakka.
  • The treaty was signed by Bangladeshi Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina and Indian Prime Minister H.D. Deve Gowda.
• Chakma Refugee problem 
  • Chakmas are predominantly Buddhists. Chakmas migrated mainly from the Chittagong Hill Tracts during the 1960s.
  • Many Chakmas took refuge in Indian states such as Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram and Assam.
  • In 1997, India and Bangladesh reached an agreement for the return of Chakma refugees. The Chakma refugee problem continues even today.

India – Sri Lanka

• Nehru-Kotelawala Pact 1954 
  • Between Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Sri Lankan Prime Minister John Kotelawala.
  • Overseas Indians were deprived of voting rights and citizenship. 
  • To solve this unjust treatment, a pact took place.
• Bandaranaike-Shastri Pact 1964
  •  Agreement on citizenship issue.
• Katchatheevu Island Dispute 
  • long-standing dispute between India and Sri Lanka.
  • In 1974, India recognized Sri Lanka’s ownership over Katchatheevu Island through an agreement.
• Sri Lankan Tamil issue
  • 29 July 1987, the India-Sri Lanka Peace Accord was signed.
  • The agreement was signed by Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi and Sri Lankan President J.R. Jayawardene.
  • Under the accord, the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) was sent to Sri Lanka, Operation Pawan was started by them to disarm Tamil militants.

India – Nepal 

• Indo–Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship was signed in July 1950.

India – Bhutan 

• The Indo-Bhutan Treaty was signed in August 1949.
• The treaty assured lasting peace and friendship between India and Bhutan.
• Article 2 of the treaty stated that Bhutan agreed to be guided by India’s advice in external relations, while retaining internal autonomy.
• Bhutan’s First Five-Year Plan was launched in 1961 and was 100% financed by India.
• After the India–China war, Bhutan entrusted its security matters to India.

India – Usa 

• In 1947, the US supported Pakistan’s stand on the Kashmir issue in the UN and India opposed Korean War in 1950. Indo-US relations worsened during the Vietnam War.
• US President Bill Clinton visited India in March 2000. Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee visited the US in September 2000.
  • Indo-US relations improved after these visits.
• The US helped India establish the Tarapur Nuclear Power Plant.

Planning and Economic Reforms

• In 1934, Sir M. Visvesvaraya proposed a model of planned development in his book Planned Economy in India.
  • Visvesvaraya suggested a ten-year plan to double national income by shifting surplus labor from agriculture to industry.
• In 1938, the National Planning Committee was formed under the chairmanship of Jawaharlal Nehru at the Indian National Congress session.
  • The report of the National Planning Committee became the foundation of economic planning in India.
• Planning Commission: Established in 15 March 1950; PM as ex-officio chairman.
  • On the recommendations of the Planning Advisory Board (1946) under K. C. Niyogi.
  • Besides Jawaharlal Nehru, key members included V. T. Krishnamachari, C. D. Deshmukh, J. C. Ghosh, and K. C. Niyogi. 
  • During the First Five-Year Plan, Krishnamachari handled agriculture, irrigation, and energy.
  • J. C. Ghosh was responsible for education, social welfare, and community development.
  • K. C. Niyogi handled industry, commerce, and transport.
  • C. D. Deshmukh was entrusted with financial management.
• National Development Council (NDC): established Aug 6, 1952
• At the Avadi Congress Session in January 1955, Nehru declared the goal of establishing a socialist society in India.
• Nehru advocated democratic socialism, His socialist ideas are expressed in his book Whither India.

Five-Year Plans:

First Plan (1951–56): 

• The key objective of the first Five-Year Plan was to place the country on the path of development by creating balance among various sectors of the economy.
• Agriculture, irrigation, and power were given the highest priority. Emphasis was placed on dam construction for irrigation and power generation.
• Iron & steel industries, chemical industries and electric equipment firms were established. 
• Social sectors such as education, technical training and health were given special attention.
• Nehru described large dams as the “temples of modern India.”
  • Major irrigation projects initiated included Bhakra Nangal, Hirakud, and Damodar Valley projects.
• The University Grants Commission (UGC) was established in 1956 to strengthen higher education.

Institution	Establishment / Inauguration Details
Central Electrochemical Research Institute (CECRI), Karaikudi	Established in January 1953 as a CSIR laboratory
Central Drug Research Institute (CDRI), Lucknow	Inaugurated on 17 February 1951 by Jawaharlal Nehru
Central Food Technological Research Institute (CFTRI), Mysuru	Established in 1950 under CSIR
Central Glass and Ceramic Research Institute, Kolkata	Formally inaugurated on 26 January 1950
Central Leather Research Institute, Chennai	Founded on 24 April 1948
National Chemical Laboratory	Founded in 1950 for chemical research
National Metallurgical Laboratory, Jamshedpur	Inaugurated on 26 November 1950 by Jawaharlal Nehru
National Physical Laboratory, Delhi	Foundation stone on Jan 1947,  Inaugurated on 21 January 1950 by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL), Bangalore	Founded in 1954
Hindustan Shipyard Limited, Visakhapatnam	1941, Established at Visakhapatnam

Second Plan

• Before the commencement of the Plan in April 1954, the Planning Commission urged the State Governments to prepare district and village level plans .
  • The reason for preparing these plans at the local level was due to different requirements of each region, geographical structure and level of development. 
  • Thus, a successful attempt was made to include common people in the scheme.
• The objectives of this were as follows :
  • To develop the institutes established in the First Plan and research done in these institutes in India to be used in development.
  • To give priority to industrial and technological development;
  •  Increase national income so that the standard of living can be improved;
  • Increase in employment opportunities;
  • Reducing inequality in the distribution of income and wealth.
• Heavy industries, socialistic pattern (P.C. Mahalanobis model).
• Mahalanobis emphasized the establishment of basic and heavy industries to support agriculture and allied sectors.
• A new industrial policy was announced in 1956. The national income increased by 10 percent.

Institution / Project	Establishment Details
Bhilai Steel Plant	Set up in 1955 with USSR assistance
Oil and Natural Gas Commission (ONGC)	Established on 14 August 1956 for oil and gas exploration
Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL)	Established in 1956 as a public sector undertaking for manufacturing heavy electrical equipment as heavy eletricals ltd, later in 1964 as BHEL
Hindustan Teleprinters Limited	Incorporated in 1960 at Chennai to manufacture communication equipment

Third Plan: 1961–1966 

• The main objectives of this Plan were as follows :-
  • Increase in national income by 5 percent per year.
  • Self-sufficiency in food production and increase in agricultural products for supply and export of industries.
  • To develop basic industries so that the industrial needs of the country could be met with internal resources in 10 years;
  • To increase employment opportunities;
• Its initial framework was presented at the National Development Council (NDC) meeting in March 1960.
• Despite constraints, national income increased by 13.8% and per capita income by 5.3 percent.

Public Sector Enterprise / Institution	Status during the Third Five Year Plan
Minerals and Metals Trading Corporation of India	1963 Established
Unit Trust of India (UTI)	1964 Established
National Seeds Corporation Limited	1963 Set up
Food Corporation of India (FCI)	1965 Established
Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL)	1940 established but later on Expanded and strengthened
Cement Corporation of India	1965 Established
Hindustan Zinc Limited	1966 Set up
Industrial Development Bank of India (IDBI)	Established in 1964
Sambhar Salts Limited	1964  Established

• Sector-wise allocation under the Third Plan included
  • 20% each for industry & minerals and transport & communications.
  • Social services and miscellaneous sectors received about 17%.
  • Agriculture and community services received about 14%.
• The wars of 1962 and 1965 and the drought of 1965-66 adversely affected Plan targets.
• Due to economic difficulties and the devaluation of rupee (1966), the Fourth Plan was postponed.
• The period 1966-1969 is known as the “Plan Holiday”, marked by annual plans.

Fourth Five-Year Plan (1969–1974) 

• Focused on growth with stability, self-reliance, social justice, and equality.
• Implementation of Family Planning Programmes.

 Fifth Five-Year Plan (1974-79) 

• D.P. Dhar Model – High Growth Model 
• Aimed at self-sufficiency and poverty eradication, along with inflation control.
• Poverty alleviation was accepted as a major objective during the Fifth Five Year Plan.
• The slogan “Garibi Hatao” was raised by the Congress Party during the 1971 Lok Sabha elections.
• The Fifth Plan was terminated one year early in 1978 by the Janata Government.
• Two one-year plans (1978–80) were implemented thereafter.

Sixth Five-Year Plan (1980–1985)

• Focused on economic liberalisation, poverty alleviation, and technological self reliance.
• Marking a major success with 5.7% actual growth rate against the target 5.2% 

Seventh Five-Year Plan (1985–1990) 

• Primary goal was to increase food grain production, create employment and improve economic productivity. 

Eighth Plan (April 1992 – 1997)

• During the period of economic reforms. Due to political and international instability.
• The Eighth Plan emphasized human development, basic education, health, and employment.

Ninth Plan (1997–2002)

• Focused on productive employment, infrastructure, and balanced development amid globalization.
• Nationalisation of Banks – 
  • The Banking Companies (Acquisition and Transfer of Undertakings) Ordinance, 1969 was issued.
  • Fourteen major commercial banks were nationalised on 19 July 1969 . 
  • In 1980, six additional banks were nationalised including Andhra Bank, Corporation Bank, New Bank of India, Oriental Bank of Commerce, Punjab & Sind Bank, and Vijaya Bank.  
• Land Reforms – 
  • Land reform was one of the first major steps taken by the Government of independent India.
  • The primary objective was the abolition of the Zamindari system to end feudal exploitation.
  • Land reform is a State Subject under the Constitution, so each state had to frame its own laws.
  • Some states enacted land reform laws, but major laws like the Zamindari Abolition Act (1961) and Land Ceiling Acts were implemented nationwide.
  • In practice, these laws proved ineffective due to continued legal and illegal transfer of land.
  • The issue was re-emphasized in 1970. In 1972, after consultations with states, it was decided to reformulate the Land Ceiling Act.
  • Land reforms after independence developed in two main phases.
  • The first phase lasted from independence to the early 1960s.
    • This phase focused on ending intermediaries like zamindars and jagirdars.
    • This phase is known as the “era of institutional reforms.”
    • Ownership rights were granted to tenants,Ceilings on land ownership were introduced,Cooperative farming and Community Development Programmes were promoted.
  • The second phase began in the mid-to-late 1960s.
    • It coincided with the Green Revolution.
    • This phase is called the “era of technological reforms.”
  • Continuous land reforms were emphasized in successive Five-Year Plans. The First Five-Year Plan emphasized making the actual cultivator the owner of land.
    • The Plan focused on abolition of intermediaries, Reduction of land revenue and granting ownership rights to tenants were emphasized. Consolidation of fragmented holdings was promoted.
  • During the First and Second Five-Year Plans, intermediaries such as zamindars, jagirdars, and other rent collectors were abolished.
  • A committee led by Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru recommended fixing a maximum limit on landholdings.
    • It suggested that land above the ceiling should be acquired by the state.
    • Surplus land was to be handed over to Village Cooperative Committees.
  • The Congress Agricultural Reforms Committee headed by J.C. Kumarappa submitted its report in July 1949.
    • The committee supported the policy of land ceiling.
    • It recommended fixing the ceiling at three times the economic holding.
  • Land management reforms were emphasized during the First and Second Five-Year Plans.
  • The most successful experiment in cooperative movement began at the grassroots level in Kheda district of Gujarat.
    • It became the foundation of the White Revolution.

Bhoodan movement –

• The movement was led by Acharya Vinoba Bhave in the early 1950s.
• Vinoba Bhave founded the Sarvodaya Society.
• Vinoba Bhave and his followers travelled on foot from village to village and appealed to landowners to donate at least one-sixth of their land.
• Donated land, called “Bhoodan,” was meant for landless and poor farmers.
• The target of the movement was to collect 5 crore acres of land.
• Leaders like Jayaprakash Narayan joined the movement.
• The first land donation was received on 18 April 1951 in Pochampally village of the Telangana region in Andhra Pradesh.
• By the end of 1955, the movement evolved into a new phase called “Gramdan.”
• Gramdan villages practiced collective ownership and equal rights over land.
• The Gramdan Movement began in Odisha and achieved significant success there.
• Note – 
  • NABARD was established in 1982 for rural sector development.
    • NABARD was set up on the recommendation of the Shivaraman Committee.

Year / Period	Programme / Policy	Key Features / Objectives
1973–74	Drought-Prone Area Programme (DPAP)	Improved economy of drought-prone regions through soil conservation, water resource development, land and forest development
1974–78	Minimum Needs Programme (MNP)	Launched in Fifth Five Year Plan to meet basic needs and improve living standards
1975	Twenty Point Programme	Poverty eradication and improvement of quality of life of poor and deprived sections; Employment, education, housing, health, agriculture, land reforms, irrigation, drinking water, protection of weaker sections.
1978–79	Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP)	Major poverty alleviation programme based on self-employment.
1979	Training of Rural Youth for Self-Employment (TRYSEM)	Skill and entrepreneurship training for rural unemployed youth (18–35 years)
1980	National Rural Employment Programme (NREP)	Wage employment through social forestry, plantations, ponds, irrigation, wells, schools and panchayat buildings
1982–83	Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA)	Sub-plan of IRDP for income-generating activities for rural women below poverty line
1983	Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP)	Employment via social forestry, plantations, rural roads and school buildings
1985	Indira Awas Yojana (IAY)	Sub-plan of RLEGP for free housing to SCs, STs and freed bonded labourers
1989 (1 April)	Merger of NREP & RLEGP	Formation of Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY)
1989–90	IAY under JRY	Indira Awas Yojana became part of JRY
1992	Supply of Improved Toolkits to Rural Artisans (SITRA)	Sub-plan of IRDP providing modern tools to rural artisans
1993 (2 October)	Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS)	Wage employment in backward, drought-prone, desert, tribal and hilly areas
1996	Indira Awas Yojana (Independent)	IAY separated from JRY and made an independent scheme
1997 (December)	Swarnajayanti Shahri Rozgar Yojana (SJSRY)	Urban poverty alleviation scheme combining earlier programmes Urban Self-Employment Programme and Urban Wage Employment Programme
1999 (1 April)	Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana (JGSY)	JRY restructured; focus on creation of rural community assets
1999 (1 April)	Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY)	Merged IRDP, TRYSEM, DWCRA, MWS (Million Wells Scheme), SITRA and GKY
1999	Ganga Kalyan Yojana (GKY)	Irrigation facilities for small and marginal farmers below poverty line
2000	Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY)	Food security for poorest families; wheat ₹2/kg, rice ₹3/kgTargeted one crore (initially) poorest families
2000–01	Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojana (PMGY)	Focus on health, education, drinking water, housing and rural roads

Development in Science & Technology

• PM chaired Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR).
• Science Policy passed by the Lok Sabha in March 1958. 
• National Institute of Science in 1948 

Atomic energy  – 

• Atomic Energy Commission (1948) set up under Homi J. Bhabha in 1948.
  • Dr. Homi J. Bhabha became the first Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission.
• Atomic energy act passed in 1948.
• Department of Atomic Energy created in 1954, with Dr. Homi Jahangir Bhabha as its secretary.
  • The Prime Minister of India directly oversees the Department of Atomic Energy.
•  India’s first nuclear reactor, Apsara,which was also the very first nuclear reactor in Asia, began functioning in Bombay in August 1956. 

Space Technology – 

• In 1962, Dr. Homi Jahangir Bhabha constituted the Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR).
  • It was under Dept of Atomic Energy .
  • INCOSPAR was chaired by Dr. Vikram Sarabhai.
  • INCOSPAR set up the Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) in Thiruvananthapuram for upper atmospheric research
• The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) was established in 1969.
• The Department of Space was created in June 1972.
• The Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) was conducted during 1975–76.
  • This was hailed as ‘the largest sociological experiment in the world’ during 1975-76, benefited 2400 villages of six states 
  • SITE used the American Technology Satellite (ATS-6) to transmit programmes.
• The Satellite Telecommunication Experiments Project (STEP) was conducted during 1977–79.
  • STEP was a joint project of ISRO and the Post and Telegraphs Department.
  • STEP used the Franco-German Symphony satellite. 
• In 1984, Rakesh Sharma became the first Indian to travel into space.
• SITE was followed by the Kheda Communications Project (KCP), which functioned as a field laboratory for need-based, locale-specific programme transmission in Kheda district of Gujarat.
  • KCP was awarded the UNESCO- IPDC (International Programme for the Development of Communication) award for rural communication efficiency in the 1984.
• India’s first spacecraft (it’s satellite) Aryabhata was developed during this period and launched with the help of a Soviet launcher.
• SLV-3 achieved its first successful flight in 1980.
• Ariane Passenger Payload Experiment’ (APPLE) became the forerunner for future communication satellite systems.

Green Revolution – 

• M.S. Swaminathan is known as the precursor of the Green Revolution in India.
• An Intensive Agricultural District Programme was started in 1960–61.
  • Initially, the programme covered 3 districts and later expanded to 7 districts by 1962–63.
    • Pali district of Rajasthan was one of the selected districts. (check this again Initially covered 7 districts (one in each selected state)
  • The programme aimed to provide loans, seeds, fertilizers, and tools to farmers.
  • Infrastructure for intensive farming was developed under this programme.
• The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) was reorganised.
  • For the first time, a scientist, Dr. B.P. Pal was appointed as the head of ICAR.
• Institutional set up was also done under this time –
  • The Agricultural Prices Commission (APC) was established in January 1965.
  • The Food Corporation of India (FCI) was also set up in January 1965.
  • The National Seeds Corporation was established during this period.
  • The Central Warehousing Corporation was set up to support storage and distribution.
• The Green Revolution began in India during 1966–67.
  • Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri played a key role in promoting the Green Revolution.
  • Indira Gandhi continued and strengthened agricultural reforms.
  • Agriculture Minister Chidambaram Subramaniam played a crucial role in policy formulation and implementation.
  • Advanced wheat seeds were imported from Mexico.
  • Credit for success goes to Norman Ernest Borlaug and M.S. Swaminathan.
    • Norman Borlaug was a Nobel Prize-winning American scientist.

Food for Peace Programme 

• The Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act was passed in the USA in 1954.
• This act is popularly known as PL-480 .
• PL-480 allowed shipment of surplus US food grains to friendly countries on concessional terms.
• India began importing food grains under PL-480 in 1956.
• During the 1965 Indo-Pak war, U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson threatened to stop wheat supplies under the PL-480 agreement. Shastri appealed to citizens to voluntarily skip one meal a week.

White Revolution 

• The rapid increase in milk production is known as the White Revolution.
• Dr. Verghese Kurien is known as the Father of the White Revolution in India.

• After the success of Amul, Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri decided to replicate the Amul model nationwide.
  • Lal Bahadur Shastri established the National Dairy Development Board in 1965 for this purpose.
    • Dr. Verghese Kurien was appointed the first Chairman of NDDB.
    • Dr. Kurien served as Chairman of NDDB from 1965 to 1998.
    • To accelerate the White Revolution, the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) launched Operation Flood in 1970.
      • Operation Flood was proposed and led by Dr. Verghese Kurien.
  • NDDB launched the “Milk River Campaign” to replicate the Amul experience nationwide.
  • National Dairy Plan is a 15-year Central Sector Scheme aimed at increasing milk production capacity of cattle and improving the breed of milch animals.
  • Phase-I of the National Dairy Plan covered the period 2011–12 to 2018–19.
• Education:
  • 1948-49: Indian University Education Commission under Dr. S. Radhakrishnan.
  • 1953: University Grants Commission (UGC) set up; UGC Act passed in 1956.
  • 1952: Mudaliar Commission for secondary education improvements.
  • 1961: NCERT established to assist with school education and curriculum.
  • Sainik Schools were established in 1964.
  • Kendriya Vidyalayas were established from 1962.

Institutional Building

Indian Institute of Science

Particulars	Details
Location	Bengaluru
Established	1909 AD
Founder	Jamsetji Tata
First Indian Director	Sir C. V. Raman

Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs)

Institute	Year / Details	Special Facts
IIT Kharagpur	Informally inaugurated in 1951; Foundation stone laid in March 1952	India’s first IIT; inaugurated by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad; foundation stone laid by Jawaharlal Nehru
IIT Bombay	Started in 1958	First institute in India established with foreign aid (Soviet Union)
IIT Kanpur	November 1959	—
IIT Madras	1959	Established with German collaboration
IIT Delhi	1963	—

Note:

• Foundation stone of five IITs laid in 1952 on the model of MIT (USA)
• All IITs were declared Institutes of National Importance by Acts of Parliament

Institutional Development during Nehru Era

S. No.	Institution	Establishment Year	Headquarters
1	Hindustan Machine Tools	February 1953	Bengaluru
2	Integral Coach Factory	October 1955	Chennai
3	National Coal Development Corporation	1956	Ranchi

Steel Plants in Nehru Era

Steel Plant	Year	Foreign Collaboration	Location
Bokaro Steel Plant	1964	Soviet Union	Jharkhand
Durgapur Steel Plant	1959	Great Britain	Durgapur (West Bengal)
Rourkela Steel Plant	1959	Germany	Rourkela (Odisha)

Other Important Personalities  

V.O. Chidambaram Pillai (VOC)

• Organised Tuticorin Coral Mill strike
• Founded Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company (Tuticorin)

Sarala Devi Ghoshal (Chaudarani)

• Rabindranath Tagore’s niece
• First woman topper of Calcutta University
  • Padmaboti Swarnapodok
• Founded underground revolutionary group
• Founded Bharat Stree Mahamandal
• Autobiography: Jiboner Jhora Pata

Basanti Devi

• Wife of C.R. Das
• One of the first women to court arrest (1921)

Matangini Hazra

• 73-year-old peasant woman
• Shot dead while holding national flag (29 Sept 1942)

Sakharam Ganesh Deuskar

• Author of Desher Katha
• Influenced by Dadabhai Naoroji and R.C. Dutt
• Book banned in 1910
• Introduced Shivaji festival in Bengal
• First modern use of word ‘swaraj’ (1902 pamphlet on Shivaji)

Singaravelu Chettiar

• Labour organiser in Madras
• First communist in South India

S.A. Dange & associates

• Radical students influenced by R.B. Lotwalla
• Dange wrote Gandhi vs Lenin (1921)

Ashwini Kumar Banerjee:

• Indian Mill Hands’ Union (1906)

Motilal Ghosh: 

• Amrit Bazar Patrika

Ambalal Sarabhai and Kasturbhai Lalbhai 

• Cooperated with Motilal Nehru
• Helped bridge the gap between Congress and Bombay mill-owners

Chandraprabha Saikiani

• Mobilised Kachari tribals in Assam
• Broke forest laws

Miscellaneous 

Governor-General Of India/ Viceroys Of India

Warren Hastings (1773–1785)

• Regulating Act, 1773
• Pitt’s India Act, 1784
• Conflict with Chait Singh of Benaras → led to Hastings’ impeachment in England
• Foundation of Asiatic Society of Bengal (1784)

Lord Cornwallis (1786–1793)

• Cornwallis Code (1793): Europeanisation of administration and introduction of civil services
• Permanent Settlement of Bengal (1793)
• Europeanisation of administration and introduction of civil services

Lord Wellesley (1798–1805)

• Subsidiary Alliance System (1798); first alliance with Nizam of Hyderabad.

Lord William Bentinck (1828–1835)

• Abolition of sati (1829)
• Suppression of thugi (1830)
• Charter Act of 1833
• Resolution of 1835: educational reforms; English as official language
• Annexation of:
  • Mysore (1831)
  • Coorg (1834)
  • Central Cachar (1834)

Lord Metcalfe (1835–1836)

• New Press Law: freedom of press

Lord Hardinge I (1844–1848)

• Abolition of female infanticide and human sacrifice

Lord Dalhousie (1848–1856)

• Doctrine of Lapse:
  • Satara (1848)
  • Jaitpur, Sambhalpur (1849)
  • Udaipur (1852)
  • Jhansi (1853)
  • Nagpur (1854)
  • Awadh (1856)
• Wood’s Educational Despatch (1854)
• Railway Minute (1853); Bombay–Thane railway line
• Telegraph reforms ; Post Office Act (1854)
• Widow Remarriage Act (1856)

 Lord Canning (1856–1857)

• Universities at Calcutta, Bombay, Madras (1857)
• Revolt of 1857

Lord Canning (1858–1862)

• Government of India Act, 1858
• ‘White Mutiny’ (1859)
• Indian Councils Act, 1861

Lord Lytton (1876–1880)

• Famine (1876–78); Famine Commission (1878)
• Royal Titles Act (1876)
• Vernacular Press Act (1878)
• Arms Act (1878)
• Second Afghan War (1878–80)

Lord Ripon (1880–1884)

• Repeal of Vernacular Press Act
• First Factory Act (1881)
• Local Self-Government Resolution (1882) – Father of Local Self-Government in India
• Hunter Education Commission (1882)
• Ilbert Bill controversy

Lord Dufferin (1884–1888)

• Third Burmese War
• Formation of Indian National Congress (1885)

Lord Curzon (1899–1905)

• Police Commission (1902)
• Universities Commission & Indian Universities Act (1904)
• Calcutta Corporation Act (1899)
• Ancient Monuments Preservation Act (1904)
• Partition of Bengal (1905)
• Curzon-Kitchener controversy
• Younghusband Mission to Tibet

Lord Hardinge II (1910–1916)

• Capital shifted to Delhi
• Coronation Durbar (1911)

Lord Chelmsford (1916–1921)

• August Declaration (1917)
• Government of India Act (1919)
• Rowlatt Act
• Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
• Non-Cooperation & Khilafat Movements
• Saddler Commission

 Lord Irwin (1926–1931)

• Simon Commission
• Nehru Report
• Lahore Congress & Purna Swaraj
• Dandi March
• Gandhi-Irwin Pact
• First Round Table Conference

Lord Willingdon (1931–1936)

• Communal Award
• Poona Pact
• Government of India Act, 1935

Lord Linlithgow (1936–1944)

• Resignation of Congress ministries
• August Offer
• Cripps Mission
• Quit India Movement

Lord Wavell (1944–1947)

• CR Formula
• Wavell Plan & Shimla Conference
• Cabinet Mission
• Direct Action Day
• Interim Government
• British decision to quit India

Lord Mountbatten (1947–1948)

• June 3 Plan
• Indian Independence Act
• Boundary Commissions under Radcliffe.

Other Commissions

Famine commission – 

• Campbell Commission
• Stretchy Commission
• Lyall Commission
• MacDonnell Commission

Currency Commission

• Mansfield Commission by Dufferin in 1886
• The Indian Currency Committee or Fowler Committee 
• Hilton Young Commission by Linlithgow in 1926

Other Important Commissions – 

• Scott-Moncrieff Commission (Irrigation) by Curzon in 1901
• Fraser Commission (Police Reforms) by Curzon in 1902
• Hunter Commission (Punjab Disturbances) by Chelmsford 1919
• Whitley Commission (Labour) by Irwin in 1929
• Sapru Commission (Unemployment) by Linlithgow in 1935
• Floud Commission (Tenancy in Bengal) by Linlighgow in 1940.

Development of Indian Press

Early Newspapers

• 1780: James Augustus Hickey started The Bengal Gazette (first newspaper in India).
  • Seized in 1782 for criticizing the government.

• Early Regulations on Press
  • Censorship of Press Act, 1799 (Lord Wellesley)
    • Relaxed later by Lord Hastings; pre-censorship removed in 1818.
  • Licensing Regulations, 1823 (John Adams)
    • Extended to journals, pamphlets, books.
  • Targeted mainly Indian language newspapers; e.g., Mirat-ul-Akbar (Rammohan Roy) stopped publication.
  • Press Act, 1835 / Metcalfe Act
    • Repealed 1823 restrictive licensing Act; considered liberal act then previous one.
    • Printers/publishers had to provide premises details and in some cases required to provide copies of publication to govt. 
    • Metcalfe became famous, as ‘liberator of the indian press”.
  • Licensing Act, 1857
    • Imposed during 1857 revolt emergency.
    • Government could stop publication/circulation of any printed matter.
  • Registration Act, 1867
    • Regulatory, not restrictive.
    • Books/newspapers had to print printer, publisher, place of publication.
    • Copy had to be submitted to local government within one month.

Early Nationalists and Press Freedom

• Raja Rammohan Roy (1824) protested against restrictions on press.

Vernacular Press Act, 1878

• Key provisions:
  • District magistrate could demand bond from printer/publisher; press equipment could be seized.
  • Magistrate’s action final, no appeal.
  • Exemption possible if proofs submitted to government censor.
• Nicknamed “Gagging Act”.
• Repressive against papers like Som Prakash, Bharat Mihir, Dacca Prakash, Samachar.
• Some papers, e.g., Amrita Bazar Patrika, switched to English to escape the act.
• Repealed by Lord Ripon in 1882.
• 1883: Surendranath Banerjea imprisoned for criticizing a Calcutta High Court judge.
• Bal Gangadhar Tilak:
  • Used newspapers (Kesari, Mahratta) and festivals for anti-imperialist propaganda.
  • Advocated boycott of foreign cloth (1896) and no-tax campaigns.
  • Arrested for sedition after Rand murder incident; sentenced to 18 months imprisonment.
  • Became “Lokmanya”, symbol of nationalist resistance.

• 1898: Section 124A amended; Section 153A added (offence to bring government into contempt or create hatred).
• 1908:Newspaper (Incitement to Offences) Act
  • Targeted extremist nationalist activity.
  • Magistrates could confiscate press property publishing material inciting violence.
  • Tilak was sentenced to Mandalay (6 years).
• Indian Press Act, 1910
  • Revived worst features of Vernacular Press Act.
  • Printers/publishers had to submit securities; government could forfeit/deregister newspapers.
  • Over 500 publications prescribed, ~1,000 prosecuted, nearly Rs 5 lakh collected in securities (1910–1915).
• 1921: Based on Press Committee chaired by Tej Bahadur Sapru:
  • Press Acts of 1908 and 1910 were repealed.

Indian Press (Emergency Powers) Act, 1931

• Initially targeted Civil Disobedience Movement.
• 1932 amendment: Expanded to all activities calculated to undermine government authority.
• During Second World War
• Under Defence of India Rules:
  • Pre-censorship of news was imposed
  • Amendments made in Press Emergency Act and Official Secrets Act.
  • At one point, publication of all news related to Congress activity was declared illegal.

Development of Education

Early Educational Institutions

• Calcutta Madrasa (1781)
  • Established by Warren Hastings
  • For study of Muslim law and related subjects
• Sanskrit College, Banaras (1791)
  • Established by Jonathan Duncan
  • For study of Hindu law and philosophy
• Fort William College (1800)
  • Set up by Lord Wellesley
  • Purpose: training Company’s civil servants in Indian languages and customs
  • Closed to function in 1802 

 Role of Indians and Missionaries –

• Enlightened Indians and Christian missionaries demanded modern education
• Serampore missionaries were most active.

Charter Act of 1813

1. First official recognition of education by Company.
2. Provisions:
   • Annual grant of ₹1 lakh
3. Problems:
   • Money released only in 1823 due to controversy over its use.

Developments after 1813

• Calcutta Hindu College in Calcutta (1817) 
• Established by educated Bengalis
  • Supported by Raja Ram Mohan Roy

Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy

• Anglicists
  • Favoured modern Western education
  • Wanted government funds only for modern studies.
• Orientalists
  • Favoured traditional Indian learning
  • Supported limited Western education for jobs
• Medium of Instruction Debate
  • Anglicists divided:
    • One group: English medium
    • Other group: Vernacular languages
• Confusion between:
  • Medium of instruction
  • Language as subject of study.

Lord Macaulay’s Minute (1835) –

• Settled debate in favour of Anglicists
• Key Decisions:
  • Western sciences & literature only
  • Medium of instruction: English
• Views:
  • Indian learning inferior to European learning (especially sciences)
• Aim:
  • Create a class:
    • “Indian in blood and colour but English in taste, opinions, morals, and intellect”
  • This policy called Downward Filtration Theory.

Efforts of James Thomson (1843–53) –

• Lieutenant-Governor of North-Western Provinces
• Introduced:
  • Village schools
  • Medium: Vernacular languages.

Wood’s Despatch (1854) –

• Prepared by Charles Wood
• Known as Magna Carta of English Education in India.
• Major Recommendations –
  • State responsible for mass education.
  • Proposed departments of public instruction in Bengal, Bombay, Madras, Punjab and North-western provinces.
• Educational hierarchy:
  • Village primary schools (vernacular)
  • Anglo-Vernacular High Schools
  • District colleges
  • Universities in presidency towns
• Medium:
  • English for higher education
  • Vernaculars for school education
• Emphasis on:
  • Female education
  • Vocational education
  • Teacher training
• Education to be secular.
• Grants-in-aid system for private institutions.
• Universities established in 1857:
  • Calcutta
  • Bombay
  • Madras
• Education departments set up in provinces
  • Bethune School (1849):
    • Founded by J.E.D. Bethune
    • First major girls’ school
  • Women’s education:
    • Girls’ schools brought under grants-in-aid
  • Technical institutions:
    • Agricultural Institute at Pusa (Bihar) (1905) (later shifted to Delhi )
    •  Engineering College at Roorkee (1847) 

Hunter Education Commission (1882–83) – 

• Headed by W.W. Hunter
• Focused on primary & secondary education
• Recommendations
  • Expansion of primary education
  • Medium: vernacular
  • Transfer primary education to:
    • District boards
    • Municipal boards
  • Secondary education divided into:
    • Literary (university)
    • Vocational (commercial)
  • Special emphasis on female education.
  • Apart from the chairman in this commission, there were 20 members of which 8 Indians (Anand Mohan Bose, KT Telang, Syed Ahmed Khan, P. Ranganand Mudaliar, Babu Bhudev Mukherjee, Haji Ghulam Hussain of Amritsar and Maharaja Jyotindra Mohan Tagore etc). 
  • Promotion of non government efforts in the field of education and the government should withdraw from secondary and college education.
• Expansion of Universities

• Punjab University (1882)
• Allahabad University (1887)

Raleigh Commission, 1902 (University Commission) –

• In September 1901, Lord Curzon convened a conference of all university officials of India at Shimla.

• The resolutions passed in this meeting became famous as the “Shimla Proposals.”
• Curzon criticized Macaulay’s educational policy because it was against the promotion of Indian (vernacular) languages.
• In 1902, under the chairmanship of Sir Thomas Raleigh, a member of Curzon’s Executive Council, the University Commission was established.
• The Commission had two Indian members:
  • Syed Hussain Bilgrami (Director of Public Instruction under the Nizam of Hyderabad).
  • Gurudas Banerjee (Judge of Calcutta High Court).
• On the recommendations of the Raleigh Commission, the Indian Universities Act of 1904 was passed.

Indian Universities Act, 1904 –

• Based on Raleigh Commission (1902)
• Provisions –
  • University Senates were restructured and reduced in size (50-100 members). Each member had a six-year term.
  • Elected Fellows were limited to 50 in Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras universities, and 15 in the other universities.
  • Majority of fellows to be appointed by the government, increasing state influence in university administration.
  • Governor-General got the Authority to fix the territorial limits of universities and regulate affiliation of colleges.
  • Universities and affiliated colleges were placed directly under government supervision.
  • Financial Grant: Annual grant of ₹5 lakh for five years introduced to promote higher education and research.Emphasis on study & research
• Reaction – 
  • Curzon: quality & efficiency
  • Nationalists:
    • Saw it as imperial control
    • Gokhale called it “retrograde measure”

Government Resolution on Education Policy (1913) – 

• Refused compulsory education
• Accepted policy of removal of illiteracy

Sadler University Commission (1917–19) – 

• Chairman: Michael Sadler
• Reviewed education from school to university
• Recommendations –
  • 12-year school course
  • Separate boards for secondary education
  • Universities as:
    • Residential
    • Teaching
    • Autonomous bodies
• Impact of Sadler Commission
• New universities:
  • Mysore
  • Patna
  • Benaras
  • Aligarh
  • Dacca
  • Lucknow
  • Osmania
  • Delhi
  • Agra
  • Annamalai
• Inter-University Board (1925)
• Student welfare boards introduced
• Appointment of a full-time salaried Vice-Chancellor as the chief executive officer of the university.
• Better organization of departments, faculties, boards of studies, and statutory academic bodies.
• Introduction of Honours courses to promote specialization.
• Incorporation of tutorial and practical work alongside lectures.
• Provision for teaching in professional fields like engineering, medicine, law, agriculture, and technology.
• Education Under Dyarchy
  • Education transferred to provincial ministries
  • Central government reduced its involvement.
  • Government grants were stopped.

Communalism in India

It emerged in the late 19th century, posing a threat to national unity.

• Factors:
  • Colonial divide-and-rule policy
  • Economic backwardness and unemployment
  • Social and educational gaps among Muslims
  • Reactionary landlords and elite influence
  • Misinterpretation of history and reform/militancy movements
  • Growth of Muslim Communalism & Two-Nation Theory
• “The Indian Musalmans” – Sir William Wilson Hunter (1871)
  • Explored the condition and loyalty of Muslims in British India.
• 1887: British supported Muslim leaders like Syed Ahmed Khan against Congress.
• 1906: Muslim League formed; demanded separate electorates.

Muslim League- 

• Encouraged by Aligarh College Principal Archbold, a Muslim delegation meets Governor General Lord Minto in Shimla on 1 Oct, 1906, under the leadership of Sir Aaga Khan. 
• On 30 December 1906, around 3,000 delegates attended a session of the Muhammadan Educational Conference in Dhaka, where a proposal was made to form the All India Muslim League. 
• The name was proposed by Nawab Khwaja Sir Salimullah Bahadur and Hakim Ajmal Khan supported it.
• The founders of Muslim League were Khwaja Salimullah, Waqar-ul-Mulk , Syed Amir Ali, Syed Nabi Ullah, Khan Bahadur Ghulam and Mustafa Chaudhary.
• The first honorary president of the league was Sir Sultan Muhammad Shah (Sir Aaga Khan). 
• Mohammad Ali Jinnah joined the Muslim League in 1913.
• At the 1908 Amritsar session, the Muslim League demanded a separate election for Muslims.
• 1909: Separate electorates introduced (Morley-Minto Reforms).
• 1915: Hindu Mahasabha founded; early Hindu communal groups emerge.
• 1916: Congress-League Lucknow Pact; legitimized Muslim League.
• 1920s–1930s: Communal riots; Shuddhi & Tabligh movements; Congress divided along communal lines.
• 1928: Nehru Report opposed by Muslim hardliners; Jinnah proposed 14 points.
• 1932: Communal Award accepted Muslim demands.
• 1937: Muslim League starts advocating Pakistan as a separate nation.
• Organizations like Punjab Hindu Sabha (1909), Hindu Mahasabha (1915), and RSS (1925) promoted Hindu communal interests.

Early Stages of Two-Nation Theory

• 1887:
  • Viceroy Dufferin and Lt. Gov. Colvin attacked Congress.
  • Syed Ahmed Khan and Raja Shiv Prasad of Bhinga supported by British as anti-Congress front.
• 1906:
  • Aga Khan led Shimla Delegation demanding separate electorates .
  • Viceroy Minto promised special communal representation. All India Muslim League founded.
• 1909:
  • Morley-Minto Reforms granted separate electorates to Muslims.
  • Punjab Hindu Sabha founded by U.N. Mukherji and Lal Chand.
• 1915:
  • First session of All India Hindu Mahasabha under Maharaja of Kasim Bazar.
• 1912–24:
  • Muslim League was dominated by younger Muslim nationalists; they first moved closer to Congress, after that they drifted towards communal politics.

Consolidation of Separate Political Identity

• 1916:
  • Congress accepted Muslim League’s demand for separate electorates.
  • Both presented joint demands to the government, giving political legitimacy to Muslim League.
• 1920–22:
  • Muslims participated in Rowlatt and Khilafat movements, but communal outlook persisted.
• 1920s:
  • Arya Samaj promoted Shuddhi (reconversion to Hinduism) movements.
  • Muslims responded with Tabligh and Tanzeem movements.
  • Ali brothers criticized Congress for favoring Hindu interests.
  • Congress failed to counter communalism effectively.
• 1928:
  • Nehru Report opposed by Muslim hardliners and Sikh League. 
  • Jinnah’s 14 Points demanded:
    • Separate electorates
    • Reservations for Muslims in services and self-governing bodies.
• 1930–34:
  • Some Muslim groups (Jamaat-i-Ulema-i-Hind, Khudai Khidmatgars) joined Civil Disobedience Movement, but overall participation low.
  • Communalists attended all three Round Table Conferences, unlike Congress.
• Iqbal
  • First articulated the concept of a separate Muslim state in British India during his 1930 Allahabad address.
  • Proposes a consolidated Muslim-majority region in the northwest (Punjab, Sindh, NWFP, Balochistan).
• Choudhry Rahmat Ali, was the Indian Muslim nationalist who coined the term ” Pakistan”.
  •  In his 1933 pamphlet, “Now or Never“
  • Demanding a separate Muslim homeland in the northwestern Muslim-majority areas of British India, articulating a distinct national identity for Muslims, and proposing an acronym: Punjab, Afghan (NWFP), Kashmir, Sindh, and -stan (Baluchistan)

Radicalisation and Mass Communalism

• After 1937 elections:
  • Muslim League performed poorly → adopted extreme communalism.
  • Mass movement base: middle and upper classes; propaganda by Z.A. Suleri, F.M. Durrani, Fazl-ul-Haq.
• Difference from earlier communalism:
  • Before 1937: Liberal communalism – safeguards, reservations, coexistence in national interest.
  • After 1937: Extreme communalism – fear, hatred, violence; mirrored by militant Hindu nationalism (Hindu Mahasabha, RSS, Golwalkar).
• Reasons for extreme communalism:
  • Radicalization → reactionary elements sought social base.
  • British administration exhausted other methods to divide nationalists.
  • Previous failures to counter communalism emboldened forces.

Key Developments Leading to Partition

• 1937–39:
  • Jinnah demanded Congress declare itself a Hindu organization; recognized League as sole Muslim representative → blocked conciliation.
• Pirpur Report (1938) and Sharif Report (1939)
  • Report contains documents produced by the All India Muslim League, Alleged atrocities and discrimination against Muslims under the Congress ministries in various Indian provinces between 1937 and 1939. 
  • These reports were key to the League’s campaign to portray Congress rule as a “Hindu Raj” and to strengthen the demand for a separate Muslim state, contributing directly to the political climate leading up to the partition of India.
  • “Day of Deliverance”: When Congress ministries resigned in October-November 1939 (protesting against India’s involvement in WWII without consultation), Jinnah used these reports to justify celebrating December 22, 1939, as a “Day of Deliverance”.
• March 24, 1940:
  • Pakistan Resolution (Lahore session):
    • Grouped Muslim-majority areas into independent states
• Pakistan Proposal – Lahore (March, 1940)
  • The outline of the proposal was prepared by Khalik Ujjman, Fazal-ul-Haq, and Sikander Hayat Khan.
  • Fazal-ul-Haq submitted the proposal, and Khalik Ujjaman approved it. 
  • The proposal said that an independent, autonomous, and sovereign state should be created by combining northwest and eastern Muslim dominated areas.
  • Provisions were demanded to protect their interests in minority Muslim regions.
• World War II period:
  • League demanded separate Pakistan in all negotiations (August Offer, Cripps’ proposals, Shimla Conference, Cabinet Mission).
• Direct Action Day, 16 August 1946. Direct Action Day’ first celebrated by League in Calcutta.
• 1947:
  • Pakistan created from Muslim-majority areas of Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan, NWFP, Bengal.

Newspaper

Year	Name	Personality	Remarks
1780	Bengal Gazette	James Augustus Hicky)	1st newspaper in India & Asia
1784	Madras Courier		1st newspaper from Madras
1818	Digdarshan	J C Marshman	1st Bengali monthly
1818	Samachar Darpan	William CareyJ C Marshman	1st Bengali newspaperSerampore, Bengal
1821	Sambad Kaumudi	Ram Mohan Roy
1822	Mirat-ul-Akbar	Ram Mohan Roy	1st Persian language journal
	Bangaduta	Dwarkanath Tagore
1826	Udant Martand	Jugal Kishore Shukla	1st Hindi weeklyKolkata
	Tattwabodhini Patrika	Debendranath TagoreAkshay Kumar Datta
	Raft Goftar	Dadabhai Naoroji
	Hindu Patriot	Harish Chandra Mukerji	Mouthpiece for indigo planters
1859	Somprakash	Dwarakanath VidyabhushanIshwar Chandra Vidyasagar	Initial idea was of Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
	Indian Mirror	Devendra Nath TagoreManmohan Ghosh
	The Bengalee	Surendranath Banerjee
	Amrit Bazar Patrika	Sisir Kumar GhoshMotilal Ghosh
	Bharat Sramajibi	Sasipada Banerjee	1st Indian journal of the working class
	Madras Mail		1st evening paper in India
	Tahzib-ul-Akhlaq	Sir Syed Ahmed Khan
	The Hindu	G. Subramania Iyer
	Dhumketu	Bengali	Kazi Nazrul Islam
	Kesari	B.G. Tilak
	Mahratta	B.G. Tilak
	The Tribune	Dyal Singh Majithia, Lala Harkishan Lal	Lahore
	Swadesh Mitram	G. Subramania Iyer	Tamil newspaper
	Sanjivani journal	Krishna Kumar Mitra	Mouthpiece of Sadharan Brahmo Samaj.13 July 1905 ‘Boycott‘ was first declared on it.
	Voice of India	Dadabhai Naoroji	Bombay
	Sudharak	G.K. Gokhale
	Indian Opinion	M. K Gandhi	Natal province, South Africa
	Bande Mataram	Aurobindo Ghosh
	The Indian Sociologists	Shyamji Krishna Verma	Started in London
	Sandhya	B.B. Upadhyaya
	Yugantar	Barindra kumar Ghosh
	Bharat Mata	Ajit Singh	JournalAnjuman-i-Mohabbatein
	Bande Mataram (Paris)	Madam Cama
	The Leader	Madan Mohan Malviya
	Bombay Chronicle	Firoz Shah Mehta
	Talwar	Birendra Nath Chattopadhyay	Berlin
	The Hitavada	Gopal Krishna Gokhale
	Al-Hilal	Abul Kalam Azad
	Pratap	Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi
	Hindustan Ghadar	Yugantar Ashram(Ghadar Party)	San Francisco
	New India	Annie Besant
	Commonweal	Annie Besant
	Independent	Motilal Nehru
	Young IndiaNav JeevanHarijan	M. K Gandhi
	Mook NayakBahishkrit Bharat	B.R. Ambedkar	Marathi weekly
	Indian Socialist	S A Dange	1st communist Journal
	Vanguard	M N Roy	Communist Journal
	Free Hindustan	Tarak Nath Das	Vancouver
	HindustanLeader (in English)	M.M. Malviya
	Dawn	Mohammad Ali Jinnah
	National Herald (daily)	Jawaharlal Nehru
	Kudi Arasu	E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker (Periyar)
	Native Opinion	V. N. Mandlik	1864

Books

Congress Session

Congress Session
Year	Place	President	Remarks
1885	Bombay	W.C. Bonnerjee	Attended by 72 delegates
1886	Calcutta	Dadabhai Naoroji	Merger of National Congress and National Conference
1887	Madras	Syed Badruddin Tyabji	—
1888	Allahabad	George Yule	—
1896	Calcutta	Rahimtulla Sayani	First public rendition of the national song, ‘Vande Mataram’.
1905	Benaras	Gopal Krishna Gokhale	Expressed resentment against the Partition of Bengal
1906	Calcutta	Dadabhai Naoroji	Word “Swaraj, swadeshi” mentioned for the first time
1907	Surat	Rash Behari Ghosh	Congress split into Moderates and Extremists
1908	Madras	Rash Behari Ghosh	—
1911	Calcutta	Bishan Narayan Dhar	Public rendition of Jana Gana Mana , sung by Sarla Devi Chaudhrani
1916	Lucknow	Ambika Charan Majumdar	Lucknow Pact
1917	Calcutta	Annie Besant	—
1921	Ahmedabad	C.R. Das	C.R. Das in prison; Hakim Ajmal Khan acting president;
1924	Belgaum	M.K. Gandhi	—
1925	Kanpur	Sarojini Naidu	First Indian woman president of INC
1928	Calcutta	Motilal Nehru	Purna Swaraj Resolution passed
1931	Karachi	Vallabhbhai Patel	National Economic Programme passed, Fundamental rights
1936 (April)	Lucknow	Jawaharlal Nehru	—
1936 (April)	Faizpur	Jawaharlal Nehru
1938	Haripura	Subhas Chandra Bose	National Planning Committee set up under Nehru
1939	Tripuri	Subhas Chandra Bose	Resigned later; Rajendra Prasad became president
1940	Ramgarh	Maulana Abul Kalam Azad	—
1948	Jaipur	Pattabhi Sitaramayya	—