Jainism is a significant topic in Ancient and Medieval history, emerging in the 6th century BCE with the teachings of Lord Mahavira. It emphasizes non-violence (Ahimsa), truth, and self-discipline as the path to liberation. Jainism has had a profound influence on India’s ethical, philosophical, and cultural traditions.
Jainism
Origin and Meaning
Lord Mahavira propagated Jainism, an ancient religion that gained prominence in the 6th century BCE.
In Jainism, there is a lineage of renowned teachers known as Tirthankaras.
There are 24 Tirthankaras in the Jain tradition. Rishabhadeva is regarded as the first Tirthankara, while Mahavira was the last. Jain beliefs were shaped and finalized by him.
The title Jain comes from the word Jina, which in Sanskrit means “conqueror.”
Enlightenment: At the age of 42 (under a sal tree on the banks of the Rijupalika River, Jharkhand, 498 BCE)
Preaching: Mount Vitulachal (Rajagriha)
Nirvana: At the age of 72 (near Pavapuri, Rajagriha) (468 BCE)
Established pilgrimage sites (monks, nuns, and lay followers).
Teachings of Mahavira
Five Great Vows (Parshvanatha’s four vows plus one added by Mahavira)
Ahimsa – Non-violence
Satya—Truth
Asteya – Non-stealing
Aparigraha – Non-possession
Brahmacharya – Celibacy
For householders—Anuvratas (small vows)
For monks—Mahavratas (great vows)
Doctrines:
The soul is eternal; bondage occurs due to karma.
Moksha is possible through the destruction of karma.
Denial of a creator God.
Ahimsa is the supreme principle.
Ganadharas (Chief Disciples)
Mahavira preached to 11 Brahmins, known as the Ganadharas.
Last surviving Ganadhara: Sudharman
First disciple and later opponent: Jamali
Three Jewels (Tri-Ratna)
Right Faith (Samyak Darshana) – Faith in truth
Right Knowledge (Samyak Jñāna) – True and correct understanding
Right Conduct (Samyak Chāritra) – Control of the senses
Principles of Jain Philosophy
Principle
Meaning
Anekantavada
Truth can be viewed from multiple perspectives (plurality of viewpoints).
Syadvada / Saptabhangi Theory
An object can be known from seven different standpoints.
Atheism (Anishvaravada)
Denial of a creator God; the universe is considered eternal.
Eternity of the Universe
The universe has existed since time immemorial, without beginning or end.
Doctrine of Karma
Karma is the cause of the cycle of birth and death.
Sevenfold Predication (Saptabhangi Nay) —Seven Forms of Syadvada
Syāt asti – In some respect, it exists.
Syāt nāsti – In some respect, it does not exist.
Syāt asti ca nāsti ca – In some respect, it exists and does not exist.
Syāt avaktavyam – In some respects, it is indescribable.
Syāt asti ca avaktavyam ca – In some respect, it exists and is indescribable.
Syāt nāsti ca avaktavyam ca – In some respect, it does not exist and is indescribable.
Syāt asti ca nāsti ca avaktavyam ca – In some respect, it exists, does not exist, and is indescribable.
Aspect
Anekāntavāda
Syādvāda
Saptabhaṅgī-naya
Common Ground
Definition
Truth is multi-faceted; a substance possesses numerous attributes and aspects.
Truth is conditional and relative, expressed with the qualifier “syāt” (from a particular standpoint).
Truth can be expressed through seven possible predications.
All three doctrines reject an absolutist view of truth and accept reality as multi-dimensional and relative.
Nature of Knowledge
Knowledge is partial and relative; complete knowledge belongs only to a Tirthankara.
Every proposition is conditional and partial.
Statements are expressed in seven modes (bhanga), each representing a partial and relative perspective.
All three accept that human knowledge is limited.
Objective
To acknowledge the infinite aspects of reality.
To apply the doctrine of Anekāntavāda in practical reasoning.
To systematically organize the logic of Syādvāda.
The aim of all three is to develop a comprehensive understanding of reality.
Main Characteristic
The concept of “anekadharmaka vastu”—a substance that possesses infinite attributes.
The use of “syāt,” meaning “from a certain perspective.”
A sevenfold method of predication.
All reject one-sided or dogmatic interpretations.
Commentary/Sutra
Principle of plurality of viewpoints.
Conditional predication (e.g., “in some respect it is” / “in some respect it is not”).
Seven forms of predication: 1. Syāt asti (in some respect, it exists) 2. Syāt nāsti (in some respect, it does not exist) 3. Asti–nāsti (in some respect it exists and does not exist) 4. Avaktavyam (indescribable) 5. Asti–avaktavyam 6. Nāsti–avaktavyam 7. Asti–nāsti–avaktavyam.
All three form part of Jain epistemology.
Place in Jain Epistemology
A metaphysical principle explaining the nature of reality.
An epistemological principle concerning the nature of knowledge.
A logical principle explaining the structure of valid predication.
Together they establish the doctrine of relativism of knowledge in Jain philosophy.
Seven Tattvas (Jain Realism)
Jīva – Soul
Ajīva – Non-living substances
Āsrava – Inflow of karmic particles
Bandha – Bondage of karma with the soul
Saṃvara – Stoppage of karmic inflow
Nirjarā – Shedding or removal of accumulated karma
Moksha – Final liberation
Ananta Chatushtaya (State of Liberation/Moksha)
Infinite Knowledge
Infinite Perception
Infinite Power/Energy
Infinite Bliss
Pudgala and Leshya
Pudgala = Karmic matter
When it mixes with the soul, it produces colouration, called Leshyā
6 colours: Black, Blue, Grey, Yellow, Red, White
Sallekhana / Santhara
A religious practice of voluntary fasting unto death, performed with full awareness and detachment.
Jainism and the Varna System
Jainism did not completely reject the Varna system but attempted to reduce its defects.
Varna is based on karma (deeds), not birth.
Jain Sangha
Founded: By Mahavira at Pavapuri
Leadership: Mahavira → Sudharman → Jambuswami (the last Kevalin)
Structure of the Jain Sangha
Tirthankara
Arhat
Acharya
Upadhyaya
Monks (Bhikshu) and Nuns (Bhikshuni)
Laymen (Shravaka) and Laywomen (Shravika)
Head of the Nuns’ Sangha: Chandana
Head of the Shravika Sangha: Chelna
Jain Sects
Two Major Traditions
Shvetambara
Digambara
Shwetambara
Digambara
Wear white clothes
Practice nudity (nude monks)
Women can attain liberation
Women cannot attain liberation
Mahavira was married
Mahavira was unmarried
Mallinatha was a woman
Mallinatha was a man
Accept the Angas and Upangas (scriptures)
Reject the Angas and Upangas
Key figure: Sthulabhadra
Key figure: Bhadrabahu
Sub-sects
Shvetambara:
Murti-Pujaka (Idol worshippers)
Sthanakavasi
Therapanthi
Digambara:
Bisapanthi
Terapanthi
Gumanpanthi
Jain Councils
Council
Year
Location
Chairperson
Outcome
First Council
300 BCE
Pataliputra
Sthulabhadra
Compilation of the 12 Angas; formation of two sects
Second Council
512 CE
Vallabhi (Gujarat)
Devardhi Kshamashramana
Final compilation of the 12 Angas and 12 Upangas
Reasons for the Spread of Jainism
Active participation of Jain monastic communities (Sanghas)
Royal patronage—Chandragupta Maurya, Kharavela, Kadambas, Gangas, Chalukyas
Simple language (Ardhamagadhi)
Intellectual appeal—principles of non-violence and non-possession
Artistic and architectural development—caves, temples
Decline of Jainism
Lack of powerful preachers after Mahavira
Loss of royal patronage
Strict ascetic practices and self-mortification
Spread of Buddhism
Revival of Brahmanism
Key Facts
Jainism is an atheistic philosophy (denial of a creator God).
Mahavira did not permit a separate order for nuns (but women were considered eligible for liberation).
The universe is a cycle of birth and death (Samsara).
Moksha is the purification of the soul through the destruction of karma.
The Five Great Vows remain the core ethical code of the Jain community.
Art and Architecture
Shravanabelagola – Colossal statue of Bahubali (Gommateshwara)
Mount Abu – Dilwara Jain Temples (11th–13th century)
Major centres: Ranakpur, Mount Abu (Dilwara), Jaisalmer, Nagaur, Chittorgarh
Mulasangh, Kashtasangh, Lonkasangh are branches of the Shvetambara tradition
Accounts of Bhadrabahu and Chandragupta Maurya’s nirvana at Shravanabelagola
Jain literature
Mahavira’s teachings were transmitted orally and systematically into numerous texts (shastras) by his immediate disciples, called Gandharas, and elder monks, called Shruta-Kevalis.
Besides writing in Prakrit and Ardha Magadhi, Jain monks also wrote in a number of other languages depending on the period, region, and the patrons they supported.
During the Sangam period in South India, they wrote in Tamil. They also wrote in Sanskrit, Shauraseni, Gujarati, and Marathi.
Jain literature can be broadly divided into two major categories—the canonical or religious texts called Jain Agamas and non-religious literary works.
Development of Jain Literature
The divine sermons of Jain Tirthankaras were called Samavasarana, which were heard by ascetics and common people.
These discourses were called Shruta Gyan and always consisted of 11 Angas and 14 Purvas.
Shruta Gyan was converted into Suttas by his disciples.
Tattāvartha Sutras: Jain texts written in Sanskrit by Umasvāmī.
One of its sutras, Parasparopagraho Jīvanām (“souls help each other”), is the motto of Jainism.
Authentic in both Shwetambar and Digambara.
Jain Agamas
Sacred texts and teachings of Jain Tirthankaras.
Originally said to have been compiled by Gandharas, who were close disciples of Mahavira.
These texts are important for Svetambaras.
Compilation – First Jain Sangiti (300 BCE) at Pataliputra and extant Angas are said to have been recompiled at a council of monks of the Svetambara sect held at Vallabhi (Gujarat) during the mid-5th century CE.
Digambaras believe that the original teachings were lost long ago and do not accept the authority of Agamas compiled at Vallabhi.
“Agama” consists of 46 texts. Of which 12 are Angas, 12 Upangas, 10 Prakirnakas, 4 Moolasutras, 6 Chhedasutras, and 2 Chulika Sutras.
Written in the Ardha-Magadhi Prakrit language. Angas teach strict codes of respect for all forms of life, vegetarianism, asceticism, compassion, and non-violence.
There are 12 Angas –
Acharanga Sutra: The oldest Agama, recompiled and edited by Kshamashramana Devardhigani, compiled on the basis of Mahavira’s teachings [Conductive rules for the life of Jain monks.]
Sutrakritanga: Describes the code of conduct for Jain monks, metaphysics, etc.
Sthanananga Sutra
\Samavayanga Sutra: Discusses the essence of Jainism, astronomy, mathematics, etc.
VyakhyaPrajnapati or Bhagavati Sutra— Description of the life and deeds of Mahavira and his contemporaries. It mentions the sixteen Mahajanapadas. Written by Sudharmaswami of the Svetambara sect of Jainism, it is written in Jain Prakrit.
Jnatradharma Katha / Nayadhammakaha—Collection of the teachings of Mahavira.
Upasakadasa
Antara Dasa
Anutra Upapaatik Dasa
Prashna Vyakaranaani: Description of sins
Vipakshasutra: Stories and examples
Drishtivada: Includes 14 Purva
12 Upangas – It includes description of Brahmin, classification of living beings, astronomy, and the division of time, description of life after death etc.
10 Prakirna—Description of legal topics related to Jainism.
6. Chhedsutra—It contains a collection of rules and methods useful for monks.
Nadi Sutra and Anuyog Sutra – It is the dictionary of Jains. It contains things related to conduct for monks.
The two oldest texts are the most sacred for Digambaras – Karma Prabhat (Discussion on Karma) or Shatkhandgam and Kashyapprabhut.
Shatakhandgam
Author: Pushpadant and Bhootabali
Language: Prakrit
Karma and its relation to the soul, as well as the nature of karma.
Written in concise prose, mostly in aphoristic style
Divided into six parts—
Habitats (categories of living beings)
Shudrak Bandha (subtlety of bond)
Bandh swamitva (ownership of bond)
Vedna (perception)
Mahabandha (Great Bond)
Vargana (Division of Karmas)
Kashyapprabhut
Compiled by the monk Gunadhara in the 2nd to 3rd centuries CE.
180 verses
Virasen started writing it in Prakrit and Sanskrit, and Jinasena completed it in 820 AD.
It is also based on the Purvas.It deals with the desires—kashayas—or attachments to worldly things.
Shwetambara Texts
Texts
Writer
Text Description
Yoga shastra
Hemachandra
A treatise on rules of conduct for laity and ascetics and Language: Sanskrit
Triśaṣṭi-śalākā-puruṣa-caritra
63 great beings that appear during each half-period cycle.
Parishisht Parvan
Detailed history of early Jain teachers
Aharnnati
Treatise on politics from Jain perspective
Other books by Hemchandra Suri – Kavyanushasan, Chhandanushasan, Siddhahamshabdanushasan (book of Prakrit and Apabhramsha), Unadisutravritti, Desinammala, Abhidhanchintamani, Dvashraya Mahakavya, Kavyanuprakash, Alankarchudamani, Pramanamimansa, and Vitaragstotra.
Gyanarnava or Yogapradipdhikar
Shubhchandra
A Sanskrit text on a variety of subjects, mainly focusing on meditation
Yogdristhi samucchaya
Haribhadra suri
Described eight aspects which are important for yoga practice
Shastravarta samucchaya
Dhyanshatak
Samaraiccha katha
Description of the life of a prince and the knowledge he gainedWritten to impart moral education
Kalpa Sutra (Biography of Jain Tirthankaras)
Bhadrabahu (3rd century BCE—last Shruta Kevalin in Jainism), one of the greatest Jain monks and teacher of Chandragupta Maurya, leader of the Digambara sect
Prakrit languageIncludes biographies of Jain Tirthankaras, especially Parshvanatha and Mahavira
Other books of Haribhadra Suri—Shravak Dharma Vidhi, Yatidinkritya,Shrampariksha, Mahavirastva, Samachariprakaran
Digambara Texts
Texts
Writer
Description
Leelavati sara
Acharya jinratna
It tells the stories of the lives of a group of souls as they pass through a series of incarnations on the path to final liberation.
Samayasāra
Acharya kundkund
Explanation of Jain concepts like Karma, Asrava, Bandha, and Moksha.
Niyamsara
sheds light on the path to salvation
Pravachana sara
Ratna Karand Shravakachar (Life of a Jain householder)
Samantbhadra swami
Around 2nd century ADLanguage: Sanskrit
Aapta mimansha
swarthsiddhi
Pujyapada
The oldest commentary on the Tattvartha SutraLanguage: Sanskrit
Tri shasti lakshana Mahapuran
Jinasena [disciple of the famous Jain monk Virasena]
Composed during the reign of Rashtrakuta ruler AmoghavarshaTwo parts—First part (Adi Purana)—by Jinasena in SanskritSecond part (Uttar Purana)—by Gunabhadra [disciple of Jinasena] in Apabhramsa
Dhawla
Commentary on Kasyapaprabhut
Note—The book Harivanshpuran was written by another Jinsen.
Other Jain texts
Source
Writer
Description
Silappathikaram [The Story of Anklet]
Ilango Adigal
One of the greatest epics of Tamil literature, written in the 2nd–3rd centuries CE, the text revolves around Kannagi, who seeks vengeance on the Pandya dynasty’s kingdom after losing her husband to a miscarriage of justice.
Jivak chintamani
Tirutakkatevar
An epic of Tamil literature
naltiyar
Ancient Tamil texts written by Jain monks
Tatvarth sutra
Umaswami
1st to 2nd century ADImportant Jain works in Sanskrit on logic, epistemology, ethics, and astronomy.
