The Origin of Rajputs

The origin of Rajputs is a key subject in Rajasthan History, tracing the rise of powerful dynasties like the Gurjar-Pratiharas, Rathores, Chauhans, Kachwahas, and Guhils (Sisodias of Mewar). These clans, known for their valor and royal lineage, are the subject of various theories—mythical, historical, and foreign—that attempt to trace their roots, reflecting the complex and diverse heritage of the Rajput clans and their lasting impact on the political and cultural landscape of medieval Rajasthan.

The Origin of Rajputs

The term Rajput started coming in use from the 6th Century AD. The origin of the Rajputs is the subject of debate. There are 2 types of streams of thought on origin of Rajputs:

Foreign Theories on the Origin of Rajputs

• Descendents of Sakas, Kushanas, Hunas –
  • Rajputs are descendents of the races like Sakas, Kushanas, Hunas etc.
  • Supporters : Dr. VA Smith, Col. James Todd, William Crooks
  • Basis : Similarity in the customs of Rajputs and Shak caste like – Sati system, Surya Puja, weapon worship, Ashwamedh Yagna,coronation, worshipping Fire, drinking liquor etc.
• Descendents of Shaka-Scythians – 
  • Supporter : Col James Todd
• Descendants of Yu-Chi (Kushan) Race – 
  • Supporter : Cunningham
  • Basis : Brochgurjar copper plate

Indigenous Theories on the Origin of Rajputs

Agnikund Theory – 

• Rajputs were the result of Yagya performed by Rishi Vashistha at “Guru Shikhar” in Mount Abu. The four Rajput clans from Agnikunda are Chauhans, Chalukyas, Parmaras and Pratiharas.
• Supporters : Muhnot Nainsi & SuryamalMishran
• Basis : Prithvirajraso of Chandbardai

Kashtriya theory –

• Rajputs are NOT from the foreign origin and they are descendents of the mythological Khatriya Heroes like Rama.
• The theory divides the Rajput based on their lineage as Suryavanshi & Chandravanshi
• Suryavanshi & Chandravanshi Origin : 
  • Supporter : Dr. Gaurishankar Ojha, Dasrath sharma
  • Basis : Shringi Rishi Inscription (Guhils are descendents of Raghukul), Hamir Mahakavya and Prithvi Raj Vijay  (Chauhans Suryavanshi Kshatriyas), Gwalior Prashasti (Pratihars belong to Surya Dynasty)
  • Bhatis of Jaisalmer trace their descendent from Chandra dynasty.
• Descendants of Vedic Aryans :
  • Supporter : C.V Vaidya

Brahmanical origin – 

• Supporter : Dr. Bhandarkar, Gopinath Sharma
• Basis : Bijolia Inscription (Chauhans are Vatsa gotra Brahman), Achleshwar Inscription (Guhil’s are Nagar Brahman)

Mixed Origin – 

• Supporter : Dr. DP Chatterjee
• ​​Rajput is a mixed race, Some of them were descendents of the Aryans while others were from the foreign races such as Hunas, Sakas etc.

Gurjar – Pratihars

The Pratihara dynasty, one of the most prominent royal clans of the Agnikul, is historically referred to as the Gurjar-Pratiharas due to its association with the Gurjar community. The Gurjars are first mentioned in the ‘Aihole inscription’ of Badami’s Chalukya king Pulakeshin II.

According to historian Ramesh Chandra Majumdar, the Gurjar-Pratiharas ruled north-western India from the 6th to the 12th century, serving as a significant barrier to Arab invaders. While various theories exist about their origin, Muhnot Nainasi documented 26 branches of the Gurjar-Pratiharas, with notable ones being those of Mandore, Jalore, Rajgarh, Kannauj, Ujjain, and Bhadouch.

Pratihars of Mandore 

Mandore is an ancient town, and was the seat of the Pratiharas of Mandavyapura, who ruled the region in the 6th century CE. The origin of the dynasty is described in two inscriptions: 

• The 837 CE Jodhpur inscription of Bauka and 
• The 861 CE Ghantiyala (or Ghantiyala) inscription of Kakkuka.

Rudolf Hoernlé assumed a period of 20 years for each generation, and placed the dynasty’s founder Harichandra in c. 640 CE. Baij Nath Puri placed Harichandra in c. 600 CE. R. C. Majumdar, on the other hand, assumed a period of 25 years for each generation, and placed him in c. 550 CE. The following is a list of the dynasty’s rulers and estimates of their reigns, assuming a period of 25 years:

After the disintegration of the Gurjara-Pratihara empire, one branch of Pratiharas continued to rule at Mandore. In 1395 CE, a princess of this branch married Rao Chunda of Rathore clan. As a result, Rao Chunda received the Junagarh fort in Mandore in dowry, and moved his capital to the site. The town remained the Rathore capital until 1459 CE, when Rao Jodha shifted his capital to the newly founded city of Jodhpur

Pratihars of Bhinmal (Jalore)

The Pratihars of Jalore, Ujjain, and Kannauj were closely connected with the Pratihars of Mandore. It appears that from the time of Harishchandra, his descendants began settling in different regions, such as Kannauj, Malwa, Gujarat, and Rajasthan, gradually establishing their empires. The rise of the Pratihars of Ujjain began under the leadership of Nagabhata I, who is considered the founder of the Pratihara dynasty in Ujjain, Kannauj, and Jalore.

Nagabhata I (730–760 CE)

Nagabhata I, the founder of the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty, was a key figure in early medieval Indian history. His leadership played a critical role in establishing a powerful empire and defending India from external threats.

Political Achievements

• Victory Over Arab Invaders : 
  • Nagabhata I is celebrated for his decisive victory over Arab invaders who attempted to expand their influence into western India after the conquest of Sindh. The Gwalior Inscription praises him as “Narayan” and “Mlechchha-Nashak” (destroyer of foreigners), reflecting his significant role in halting Arab advances. His military success safeguarded the cultural and political integrity of northwestern India and reinforced Indian resistance against external aggression.
• Consolidation of Power : 
  • Nagabhata I unified smaller principalities in regions like Gujarat, Rajasthan, and central India, establishing a strong political foundation for the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty. His efforts ensured stability and laid the groundwork for the empire’s expansion under his successors.

Administrative Contributions

Nagabhata I’s reign brought administrative stability and economic growth. He focused on fortifying cities and securing trade routes, which encouraged commerce and prosperity. His governance also emphasized agricultural improvements, benefiting rural and urban populations alike.

Cultural and Religious Patronage 

A devout supporter of Hinduism, Nagabhata I promoted the construction of temples and religious institutions. His reign marked a revival of Indian cultural and religious traditions, bolstering the socio-religious identity of the time.

Vatsaraja (783-795 CE)

During Vatsaraja’s reign, the Tripartite Struggle began, lasting for about 150 years. This was a conflict among three major powers — Gurjara -Pratiharas (Northwest), Rashtrakutas (South), and the Palas (Bengal)—over the control of Kannauj.

• Vatsaraja defeated Chakrayudh, the ruler of Kannauj, and established his dominance over the region.
• However, he was later defeated by the Rashtrakuta king Dhruva, forcing him to retreat to the deserts of Jalore.

Literary Contributions

• Udyotanasuri composed ‘Kuvalayamala’ in Jalore.
• Acharya Jinasena authored the ‘Harivamsha Purana’ during this period.

Religious and Architectural Contributions

• The Mahavir Jain Temple at Osian was built during his reign.
• This temple is considered one of the oldest Jain temples in western Rajasthan.

Mihir Bhoj (836–885 CE)

Mihir Bhoj was one of the greatest rulers of the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty. He was known by the title Ādivarāha. During his reign, the Gurjara-Pratihara empire reached its zenith in political, military, and cultural terms. He not only expanded his empire but also safeguarded India’s northern frontiers from external invasions. His achievements are detailed in the Rajatarangini by the Kashmiri poet Kalhana, and Sulaiman refers to him as “the most powerful ruler of India.”

Political Achievements : 

• Reassertion of Control over Rajputana
  • Mihir Bhoj re-established control over Rajputana by defeating rival powers. According to the Jodhpur Inscription, he subdued the Pratihara ruler of Mandore, ‘Bauk.’ Additionally, the Chatsu Inscription reveals that the Guhila ruler of Mewar, Harsha Raj, was also under Mihir Bhoj’s suzerainty. These campaigns solidified the western boundaries of his empire
• Victory in the Tripartite Struggle
  • The Tripartite Struggle was a prolonged conflict between the Palas, Rashtrakutas, and Pratiharas for control over Kannauj. Mihir Bhoj defeated the Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna III and took control of Kannauj, which subsequently became the capital of the Gurjara-Pratihara empire. He also engaged in battles with the Pala ruler Devapala, successfully maintaining his political dominance.
• Expansion of the Empire
  • Under Mihir Bhoj, the Gurjara-Pratihara empire reached its peak in territorial expansion. The Bagrama Inscription describes him as “the conqueror of the entire earth,” highlighting the vast extent of his empire.
• Resistance Against Arab Expansion
  • Mihir Bhoj effectively halted the expansion of Arabs into India. The Arab traveler Suleiman referred to him as “the enemy of Islam” and praised the stability and prosperity of his reign. Accounts from historians like Al-Masudi and Al-Biladuri further confirm that Mihir Bhoj successfully repelled Arab invasions in northwestern India.

Administrative Reforms

Mihir Bhoj introduced significant administrative reforms. He strengthened the tax collection system and ensured the safety of trade routes. His reign saw improvements in agriculture and irrigation systems, enhancing the prosperity of farmers and boosting the overall economy.

Cultural and Religious Contributions

Mihir Bhoj was a devout follower of Vaishnavism and promoted temple construction and religious activities. According to Gwalior inscription, his title, Ādivarāha, reflects his deep dedication to Vaishnavism.

Mahendrapala I (885–910 CE)

After Mihir Bhoja’s demise, his son Mahendrapala I ascended the throne of the Gurjara-Pratihara Empire. His reign is particularly notable for the flourishing of art, literature, and culture.

• His reign is considered one of the golden periods of Sanskrit literature due to Rajshekhar’s prolific creations and influence.
• Mahendrapala’s court was adorned by the celebrated Sanskrit scholar and poet Rajshekhar, who addressed him with epithets like Raghukul Choodamani (Crown Jewel of the Raghu Dynasty), Nirbhaya Raj, and Nirbhaya Narendra (The Fearless King)
• Rajshekhar was the guru and minister of Mahendra Pal I and his son Mahipal.
  • Rajshekhar’s Literary Contributions :
    • Karpuramanjari: A renowned play written in Prakrit.
    • Kavyamimamsa: A critical treatise on the theory and practice of poetry.
    • Vidya Salabhanjika: A drama showcasing his literary brilliance.
    • Balabharata and Balramayana: Plays based on the stories of Ramayana and Mahabharata.
    • Haravilasa: A poetic work.
    • Prachanda Pandava: A narrative on the Pandavas.
    • Bhuvanakosha: A geographical treatise.

Tripartite Struggle (750-900 CE) : 

The Tripartite Struggle (8th–12th centuries) was a series of wars in northern India among the Palas, Pratiharas, and Rashtrakutas, competing for control over Kannauj, a strategically significant city in the Gangetic plains.

Yashpal (1027-1036 CE)

He was the last ruler of Gurjara-Pratiharas. After Him, in 1093 AD, Gahadwal King Chandradev snatched Kannauj from Pratiharas and ended the independent political existence of Pratiharas. After this, Pratiharas became only vassals of Gahadwals, Rathores and Chauhans.

• After defeating Prthviraj Chauhan in the second Battle of Tarain, Moh. Gauri attacked Jaychand. 
• In 1194, Battle of Chandwar took place in which Muhammad Ghori defeated Jaichand. Soon the kingdom of Gahadwalas was destroyed.
• Rao Siyaji, grandson of Jai Chandra, of Kannauj, came to Marwar during his pilgrimage to dwarka.
• His Son, Rao Asthan conquered Pali, and Khed (in western Marwar), but ultimately got killed in battle by Sultan Jalauddin Khilji of Delhi.
• Rao Chanda/Chundarji, 10th in succession from Siyaji, finally wrested control of Marwar from the Gurjara Pratiharas – and established rule of Rathores in Marwar. Jodhpur was the primary state of Rathores but different states (Bikaner, Kishangarh etc) were also founded by different Rathore rulers.

Evaluation of Gurjara-Pratiharas :

The Gurjara-Pratiharas significantly shaped the political, military, and cultural history of North India. Following the decline of the Pushyabhuti dynasty, they established a vast empire, resisted foreign invasions, and made notable contributions to art and architecture.

Achievements : 

1. Strong Empire
   • The Pratihars were first to establish a large empire in North India after Harsha’s death, ruling for around 150 years.
   • Mihir Bhoja’s reign marked their peak, with the Bagrama Inscription describing him as “the conqueror of the entire earth.”
2. Defenders of the Western Frontier
   • Nagabhata I, called “Narayan” and “Mlechchha-Nashak” in the Gwalior Inscription,  decisively defeated Arab invaders near Sindh to protect India’s western frontier.
   • Mihir Bhoja, repelled Arab advances, earned praise from Arab traveler Sulaiman as the “enemy of Islam.”
3. Cultural and Religious Patronage
   • They were great patrons of art and literature, with Mahendrapala I’s court hosting the Sanskrit poet Rajshekhar.
   • The Gurjara-Pratihara style marked a significant contribution to Indian temple architecture, characterized by intricate carvings, elaborate shikharas for eg. Sun temple Osian.
4. Military and Political Accomplishments
   • Even after prolonged Tripartite Struggle, they retained their position as the leading power in the region.
   • Nagabhata II regained Kannauj, Mihir Bhoja’s campaigns expanded the empire, solidifying its dominance in North India.

Decline of the Gurjara-Pratiharas : 

1. Foreign Invasions – The invasions of Mahmud of Ghazni, particularly the looting of Kannauj, marked the empire’s decline
2. Internal Conflicts – Family disputes and power struggles weakened the empire.
3. Rise of Feudal Lords – Weak central leadership allowed feudal lords to assert independence, fragmenting the empire.
4. Impact of the Tripartite War – The century-long struggle over Kannauj left them vulnerable to external threats

Rathores of Jodhpur (Marwar)

The originator of the Rathores of Jodhpur is Sihaji who is considered to be a descendant of Jaichand Garhwal of Kannauj. He was the grandson of Harishchandra, son of Jaichandra. Sihaji is succeeded by Asthan > Duhad > Rao Chada and finally Rao Chunda

Rao Chanda/Chundarj (1394-1423 CE)

• Chundaji secured & founded the kingdom of Marwar.
• Rao Chanda, is killed in battle by Salim Shah of Multan.
• The king’s son, Kanha, subsequently has to fight to retain his throne with his brother Rao Ranmal. Ultimately, Ranmal succeeds.
• This is the same Ranmal who marries his sister Hansabai to Rana Lakha of Mewar.

Rao Jodha (1438 – 1489 CE)

• Son of Ranmal becomes first fully independent king of Jodhpur,
• 1459- Laid foundation of modern city of Jodhpur.
• In 1453 AD, the Treaty of Aawal-Bawal was signed between Rao Jodha and Maharana Kumbha. By which he gets Mandore from the Sisodias of Mewar (Rana Kumbha).
• Began Construction of Mehrangarh fort.
• Jodha’s son Rao Beeka – founded the kingdom of Bikaner
• In 1453 AD, the treaty of Aawal-Bawal was signed between Rao Jodha and Maharana Kumbha.

The Treaty of Anwal-Babal (1453 CE) was Signed between Rana Kumbha of Mewar and Rao Jodha of Marwar to resolve boundary disputes and strengthen relations. Mediated by Hansabai, This treaty established the boundary between Marwar and Mewar, with Sojat as the central reference point. The boundary was determined based on the trees in the region: areas with khejri trees belonged to Marwar, while areas with mango trees were part of Mewar. The treaty also included the marriage of Rao Jodha’s daughter, Shringar Devi, to Kumbha’s son, Raymal, further solidifying the alliance.

Rao Satal (1489-1492)

• Battle of Pipad (Nagaur) in 1492 – Rao Satal Deo defeated Mallu Khan of Ajmer.
• The renowned Ghudla festival of Marwar began to commemorate Satol’s victory over Ghodala Khan (who was the commander of Mallu Khan).
• Ghudla Festival celebration – Chaitra Krishna Ashtami to Chaitra Shukla Tritiya.

Rao Maldeo (1532-1562)

• Rao Maldeo fought 52 battles during his reign, winning 58 parganas. His first military campaign was the conquest of Bhadrajun (1532 CE), where he defeated Veer Sindhal and established control.

Battle of Pahoba / Sahiba (1542 CE) :

• Rao Maldeo, aiming to expand his territory, sent a large army under Kumpa towards Bikaner. Rao Jaitsi of Bikaner sought help from Sher Shah Suri but faced Maldeo’s powerful forces at Sahiba. Unable to withstand the attack, Jaitsi was killed in battle, and Maldeo established control over Jangaldesh.

Battle of Giri / Sumel (1544 CE) :

The battle was fought between Sher Shah Suri’s Afghan forces and the Rajputs led by Rao Maldeo Rathore. Despite being heavily outnumbered (12,000 Rajputs against 80,000 Afghans), the Rajput commanders Jaita and Kumpa, alongside Pachain, displayed remarkable bravery.

• Sher Shah used deception by planting forged letters to sow mistrust in Maldeo’s camp, causing the king to retreat to Jodhpur. However, Jaita and Kumpa, proving their loyalty, stayed to fight. They led a fierce assault on Sher Shah’s camp, inflicting significant losses. Both Jaita and Kumpa were killed in the battle, but their valor left Sher Shah awestruck, leading him to famously remark: “I almost lost the empire of Hindustan for a handful of millet.“
• Though Sher Shah emerged victorious, suffering heavy losses, his general Khawas Khan Marwat captured Jodhpur and occupied Marwar from Ajmer to Mount Abu. Rao Maldeo later reclaimed these territories by July 1555 CE.
• Importance of this Battle :  Battle of Sammel marked a turning point in Rajput history. Before this, rulers like Prithviraj Chauhan, Hammir Chauhan, Maharana Kumbha, Maharana Sanga, and Rao Maldeo symbolized the glory, independence, and strength of the Rajput dynasty. They were known for their courage and self-reliant rule.
• However, after the Battle of Sammel, the era of Rajput power and independence came to an end. What followed was a period of subjugation, where Rajput rulers became dependent on more powerful empires, such as the Mughals. This new phase included leaders like Viram, Kalyanmal, Man Singh, Mirza Raja Jai Singh, and Ajit Singh, who often served as allies or subordinates to larger empires rather than ruling independently.

Battle of Harmada (1557 CE) : 

• Combined armies of Rao Maldeo and Haji Khan Sur attacked and defeated Rao UdaiSingh of Mewar.
• Background : After defeating Rao Maldeo in the Battle of Sammel (1544), Sher Shah Suri advanced to Chittor. Rana Udai Singh, unable to defend the fort, surrendered without resistance, retaining control of his territories. Despite Sammel’s defeat, Rao Maldeo regained his lost territories by 1555. In 1556, Haji Khan Sur attacked Ajmer and Nagaur with support from Rana Udai Singh and Rao Surjan of Bundi. Disputes over Rana Udai Singh’s demands for payment and a dancer (Rngray) led to a fallout (Reference: Muhnot Nainsi Ra Khiyat ). Haji Khan allied with Rao Maldeo, and together they attacked Mewar in the 1557 Battle of Harmada. This period showcased shifting alliances among Rajputs and Afghans.

Contributions of Maldeo:

• Strengthened Marwar by fortifying towns like Nagaur, Siwana, Sojat, and others.
• Constructed the Ranisar Kot, Shaharpanah (city walls) of Jodhpur, and repaired the fortifications of Nagaur.
• Enhanced water management in Ajmer’s Taragarh Fort by building reservoirs and installing a Persian wheel for water supply.
• His queen, Jhali Swaroopde, built the Swaroop Sagar Lake, also known as Bahuji Ro Talab.
• He Initiated art patronage, with early works in Chokhe Lav Mahal and Uttaradhyayana Sutra.

Maldeo’s relations with Humayun and SherShah

Relations with Humayun – Alliance with Caution:

• In 1541, when Humayun was defeated and fleeing from Sher Shah, Maldeo extended military and political support, offering 20,000 troops.
• The intent was not mere sympathy—Maldeo saw this as an opportunity to restore Humayun, thereby securing an imperial ally and raising Marwar’s stature, akin to Rana Sanga’s legacy.
• However, Humayun’s delayed response (1542) made the alliance unviable, as Sher Shah had by then consolidated his hold over North India.
• Maldeo, sensing the risk, withdrew his support—a move seen by some chroniclers as betrayal, but better understood as strategic repositioning.

Relations with Sher Shah – Tension & Tactical Engagement:

• Maldeo’s growing power in Rajputana posed a direct challenge to Sher Shah, who sought to expand westward.
• Despite Maldeo’s previous neutrality, Sher Shah viewed him as a threat and in 1544, marched towards Marwar, leading to the Battle of Sammel (Giri-Sumel).
• Sher Shah employed psychological warfare—forging letters to cause dissent in Maldeo’s camp.
• Maldeo withdrew, but his generals Jaita and Kumpa fought valiantly, impressing even Sher Shah who remarked:
  “A handful of Bajra nearly cost me the throne of Hindustan.”

Critical Evaluation:

• Realpolitik over Idealism: Maldeo’s decisions were grounded in the pragmatic realities of power balance. His retreat from Humayun wasn’t betrayal but strategic survival, avoiding unnecessary confrontation with a rising Sher Shah.
• Lack of Long-Term Vision: Maldeo failed to forge a consistent foreign policy. His hesitation weakened his bargaining power, and he ended up alienated from both Humayun and Sher Shah.
• Regional over Imperial Thinking: Maldeo prioritized regional autonomy over playing the long game of imperial alliances—limiting Marwar’s role in shaping pan-Indian politics.

Personality Evaluation of Rao Maldeo 

Rao Maldeo Rathore was a dynamic and multifaceted leader, renowned for his military genius and administrative foresight. His conquests of 52 battles and annexation of 58 parganas underscore his strategic brilliance and indomitable courage. He fortified Marwar, developed infrastructure, and introduced effective water management systems, laying the groundwork for a self-reliant and powerful state.

His diplomatic acumen is evident in his pragmatic dealings with Humayun, where he prioritized state interest over emotional obligations. Persian historians called him the “Most Potent Ruler of Hindustan,” and Dr. Bhargava praised him as “a God-gifted soldier and skilled diplomat.” His valor echoed in the Battle of Sammel, where his commanders showcased legendary bravery against Sher Shah Suri.

Yet, Maldeo’s personality bore contradictions. His suspicion and impulsiveness led to grave errors — notably, mistrusting his devoted generals Jaita and Kumpa, and falling for Sher Shah’s deceit,weakening his position in the Giri-Sumel war. His decision to choose Chandrasen over Ram due to courtly influence caused dynastic instability, revealing a flawed personal judgment.

In essence, Rao Maldeo was a visionary monarch and fierce warrior, who nearly carved an empire of his own. But his mistrustful temperament and personal miscalculations limited his legacy. He remains one of Rajasthan’s greatest yet most complex rulers — a hero shaped by strength, strategy, and human fallibility.

Rao Chandra Sen (1562-1565) : 

• Rao Maldeo, dissatisfied with his eldest son Ram, appointed Chandrasen as the crown prince of Marwar.
• His younger son, Udai Singh, was denied the throne by their mother, Queen Swarupde (Chandrasen’s mother).
• A conflict broke out between Ram, Udai Singh, and Chandrasen, with Chandrasen emerging victorious.
• Eventually, Ram Singh sought refuge with Akbar, who sent an army under Hussain Kuli Khan’s leadership in 1570 to assert control over Marwar.
• Akbar appointed Ram as the ruler of Marwar after the conquest.
• Nagaur Darbar (1570) :
  • Akbar held the Nagaur Darbar in 1570 to gauge Rajput rulers’ loyalty.
  • Chandrasen attended the darbar with hopes of acquiring Jodhpur.
  • He noticed Akbar’s preference for his brothers, Ram and Udai Singh.
  • Realizing the shifting alliances, Chandrasen left the darbar.

Evaluation of Chandrasen’s Personality

Rao Chandrasen stands out as one of Rajasthan’s most valiant and independent rulers during the Mughal era. Often called the “forgotten hero of Marwar,” his legacy remains underappreciated in historical narratives. However, as Dr. Bhargava observes, he was a leader who was willing to sacrifice everything to keep his motherland free from Mughal rule. His determination to resist Akbar’s forces despite overwhelming odds showcases his unshakable resolve and patriotic spirit.

Chandrasen’s strategic ingenuity was evident in his military tactics. He was the first Rajput king to prioritize the defense of forest and mountainous regions over conventional forts. His embrace of guerrilla warfare set him apart from other rulers and foreshadowed the strategy later adopted by Maharana Pratap. This approach demonstrated his adaptability, resourcefulness, and foresight ; qualities that allowed him to challenge the mighty Mughal empire despite limited resources.

Chandrasen’s refusal to submit to Akbar and his relentless fight for independence over 19 years epitomize his pride and bravery. He is seen as a “pathfinder” for Maharana Pratap, guiding him in the fight against Mughal tyranny. For this reason, Chandrasen is often called the “Pratap of Marwar.” he became a symbol of defiance, admired for his unwavering commitment to his people’s freedom. A poet once remarked, “Anadagiya turi ujla… Chandrasen pravit.” This highlights how both Chandrasen and Maharana Pratap, in their shared resistance, remained steadfast against Mughal oppression, never compromising their honor.

Chandrasen’s personality was defined by his courage, leadership, and self-sacrifice. Like Pratap, he was not just a warrior, but a visionary who understood the value of independence and pride. His unyielding spirit, refusal to accept defeat, and prioritization of his people’s autonomy continue to define his legacy as a leader who chose a path of struggle rather than submission.

Raja Udai Singh (Mota Raja) (1583-1595)

• In 1583, Akbar appointed Udai Singh as the ruler of Jodhpur (Marwar) under Mughal sovereignty, making him the first Marwar ruler to accept Mughal rule.
• Mughal-Marwar matrimonial alliance – In 1587, Udai Singh arranged the marriage of his daughter, Jodha Bai (Jagat Gusai), to Jahangir.
• Jodha Bai, also known as Manmati or Mani Bai, was the mother of Khurram, who later became Shah Jahan after Jahangir.
• In 1609, Udai Singh’s son, Kishan Singh, established Kishangarh, making it the third center of Rathore power.

Maharaja Jaswant Singh (1638-1678)

• During the war of succession (1658-59 CE) among Shah Jahan’s sons, Maharaja Jaswant Singh of Jodhpur supported Dara Shikoh against Aurangzeb in the Battle of Dharmat (April 1658 CE). However, due to the betrayal of Qasim Khan, Dara suffered a defeat, forcing Jaswant Singh and his allies to retreat to Jodhpur.

Upon Jaswant Singh’s return to Jodhpur, his wife, Maharani Jaswant De, known as the “Udaipuri Rani,” refused to open the gates of the fort. She sent a message stating that Rajputs either return victorious from battle or sacrifice their lives on the battlefield. She declared that a defeated king could not return, and she began preparations for sati (self-immolation). Ultimately, after being persuaded by the queen mother and upon Jaswant Singh’s promise to avenge the defeat, the gates of the fort were opened

Art, Literature and Architectural Contributions : 

• Art – During his reign jodhpur school of painting got Influenced by Krishna legends and Mughal art. Some famous painters were karim, Natho narayan, nago wtc
• Literary Contributions
  • Maharaja Jaswant Singh was a patron of knowledge and a scholar himself.
  • He authored significant works such as “Bhasha-Bhushan“ on rhetoric and aesthetics, and philosophical texts like “Aparoksha Siddhant,” “Anubhav Prakash,” “Anand Vilas,” “Siddhant Sar,” and “Siddhant Bodh.”
  • Jaswant Singh wrote a commentary on the Shrimad Bhagavat and translated the Sanskrit play Prabodh Chandrodaya into Hindi under the title “Chandra Prabodh.”
  • Renowned scholars like Surat Mishra, Dalpati Mishra, Narharidas Barhath, Navin Kavi, and Banarsidas adorned his court.
  • His Diwan and Charan, Munhot Nainsi, authored Rajasthan’s first historical text, “Nainsi Ri Khyat,” and the gazetteer “Marwar Ra Pargana Ri Vigat.”

Architectural Contributions

• Maharaja Jaswant Singh commissioned several reservoirs, gardens, and architectural marvels.
• He established “Jaswantpura” in Aurangabad and built the “Kachhari Bhavan” near Agra in Mughal-Rajput architectural style.
• His queen, Rani Atirangade, constructed the “Jan Sagar Talab,” also called “Sekhawatji Ka Talab.”
• Another queen, Rani Jaswante, developed “Rai Ka Bagh,” “Uska Kot,” and the “Kalyan Sagar Talab,” located in the area known as “Rata Nada.”
• A stepwell named “Rupa Bawdi” was built inside Medti Gate in honor of Rupa Dhay, the Maharaja’s caretaker.

Maharaja Ajit Singh (1679-1724)

• When Jaswant Singh died, he left no male heir. But 2 of his wives were pregnant. AJit was born later. However, Aurangzeb appointed Indra Singh as ruler.
• Durgadas went to Auranzeb to recognize Ajit singh as successor but Aurangzeb kept the condition of converting Ajit to muslim. Durga das disagreed.
• For 20 years, Marwar remained under direct Mughal rule, Durga das continued struggle.
• When Aurangzeb died 1707, Durga das seized the occasion, Ajit Singh regained Jodhpur.

Architectural Contributions : 

Maharaja Ajit Singh skillfully blended Hindu-Mughal architectural styles in his construction works.

• Ek Thamba Mahal – He built a three-story cenotaph (Deval) on a seven-foot-high platform in Mandore in memory of his father, Jaswant Singh. This cenotaph, also called “Ek Thamba Mahal,” is an excellent example of Hindu-Muslim architectural synthesis.
• Fateh Mahal and Daulatkhana Raj Mahal in Jodhpur Fort, Jaswant Singh’s memorial at Mandore.
• Ghanshyamji Temple and Moolnayak Temple in Jodhpur city.
• Rani Ranawati built the Shikharchand Temple near the stepwell (Jhalra).

Art and Literature contribution : 

Maharaja Ajit Singh was a devout ruler who significantly contributed to literature and arts. He authored works such as ‘Gunasagar,’ ‘Durga Path Bhasha,’ ‘Nirvana Doha,’ ‘Ajit Singh Ra Kahhya Doha,’ and ‘Gaj Uddhar,’ based on the Bhagavata Purana. His devotional compositions, including ‘Duha Shri Thakura Ra’ and ‘Maharaja Ajit Singh Ra Geet,’ were widely acclaimed. His time was evidence of Influence of the feudal culture in jodhpur school of painting  

Ajit Singh also patronized scholars like Jagjivan Bhatt, who wrote ‘Ajitoday,’ Pandit Balkrishna Sharma, who composed the Sanskrit ‘Ajit Charitra,’ and Pandit Shyamram, who created ‘Brahmand Varnan.’ These contributions highlight his commitment to Marwar’s cultural and intellectual heritage.

Personality Evaluation : 

Maharaja Ajit Singh displayed remarkable administrative skills and an eye for architectural excellence. His reign is remembered for blending Hindu and Mughal architectural styles, evident in masterpieces like the Fateh Mahal, Daulat Khana Raj Mahal, and the “Ek Thamba Mahal” cenotaph in Mandore. His contributions to temple construction and urban development also highlight his dedication to cultural and religious preservation. Ajit Singh’s resourcefulness and ambition were evident in his ability to leave a significant mark on Marwar’s architectural and administrative landscape.

However, his personality was marred by significant flaws. Historians like Dr. Gaurishankar Hirachand Ojha have criticized him for being arrogant, Kaan ka kaccha (easily influenced), and vindictive. Ajit Singh’s inability to defend Marwar effectively against Mughal invasions and his readiness to accept unfavorable terms exposed his lack of courage and mental fortitude. Furthermore, his greatest failing was his ingratitude toward his loyal supporter Durga Das Rathore, whom he exiled under the influence of malicious advisors. This act of betrayal tarnished his legacy, leaving a lasting stain on an otherwise noteworthy reign.

Veer Durgadas Rathore

Veer Durgadas, a symbol of loyalty and valor, was born on 13 August 1638 in Salwa village to Askaran, the minister of Maharaja Jaswant Singh. He served in Jaswant Singh’s army and played a crucial role in safeguarding Marwar’s interests after the Maharaja’s death. Durgadas dedicated his life to protecting the rightful heir, Ajit Singh, from Mughal emperor Aurangzeb and led the Rathore-Sisodia alliance in resistance until Aurangzeb’s death in 1707.         

An example of his tolerance and commitment to principles was seen when he, despite being a devout Hindu, ensured that Prince Akbar’s children, Buland Akhtar and Safiyatunissa, received proper Islamic education. This act of preserving their cultural and religious heritage showcased his adherence to values beyond personal or religious bias.

However, due to differences with Ajit Singh later in life, Durgadas moved to Mewar, where he lived independently. He died in Ujjain on 22 November 1718. Durgadas remains a celebrated figure in Marwar, remembered for his bravery and loyalty, with the saying “Mayad aido poot jan, jaido Durgadas.” Historian James Tod referred to him as the “Ulysses of the Rathores.”

Maharaja Abhay Singh (1724-1749)

• Maharaja Abhay Singh had a deep affection for poetry and literature. The Charan poet Karnidan, under his patronage, composed the work Suraj Prakash. Additionally, inspired by his battle with Sarbuland Khan, he created a metrical composition titled Viruddh Shringar (also known as Bidra Sringar). Pleased with his work, the Maharaja honored him by granting the village of Alawas as Lakpasav, conferring the title of Kaviraj, and showing unparalleled respect by escorting him home from Mandore on an elephant while riding a horse himself.
• Many other poets such as Raschand, Sevak, Prayag, Maidas, Sawantsingh and Prithviraj flourished under his patronage. Among these, Prithviraj, a Charan poet of the Sandu lineage, composed Abhay Vilas, a literary work in the vernacular. 
• Other literary works:
  • Abhayoday (in Sanskrit) by Bhatt Jagjivan.
  • Rajroopak by Ratanu Veerbhan.
  • Kavitt Shri Mata Ra by Raspunj.

Maharaja Man Singh (1803 -1843)

• Maharaja Man Singh entered into a subsidiary alliance(1818) with the British, ensuring political stability for the kingdom. This alliance marked a significant shift in Jodhpur’s diplomatic relations during his reign. His notable works are
• Gingoli war : Between over krishna kumari dispute (Maan singh and Jagat singh-II)

Art:

• The reign of Maharaja Man Singh is considered the golden era of the Jodhpur School of Painting. 
• During this period, artists created exquisite works depicting scenes from the Shiv Puran, Durga Puran, Ajit Singh hunting expeditions, and narratives of Nath Charitra.
• The prominent painters of this era included Dana Bhati, Amardas Bhati, and Shivdas, whose contributions significantly enriched the artistic heritage of Jodhpur.

Literature : 

• His passion for literature and art led to the establishment of the ‘Pustak Prakash’ library in Jodhpur Fort in Vikram Samvat 1861, where he collected books and paintings. 
• His writings included poetry on themes of romance, devotion, and spirituality, along with a commentary on the Bhagavata Purana in Rajasthani. 
• He also authored works on diverse subjects such as ‘Chaurasi Padarth Namavali,’ addressing topics like justice, literature, and music, ‘Krishna Vilas,’ a verse translation of Srimad Bhagavatam.
• The Maharaja’s Bhatiyani queen, Rani Pratap Kunwari, was a poetess and scholar of high repute. Her notable works include ‘Gyan Sagar,’ ‘Pratap Pachisi,’ ‘Prem Sagar,’ and ‘Raghubar Snehlila.’

Religious Beliefs :

• deeply devoted to the Nath sect and promoted its teachings through several compositions like ‘Jalandhar Nath Ji Ro Charitra’ and ‘Nathcharitra.’ To honor the Nath tradition, he established the Mahamandir in Jodhpur, which became a significant branch of the sect. 

Maharaja Sir Takht Singh (1843-1873)

• Maharaja Takht Singh witnessed significant political events and public welfare reforms. The 1857 rebellion occurred during his time, and he supported the British fully.
• 1857 Rebellion :
  • Takht Singh sent his army to suppress the rebellion.
  • On 8th September 1857, his commander Onaid Singh was killed in the ‘Battle of Bittora.’
  • In recognition of his support, the British granted the Jodhpur court the right to adoption in 1862.
• Public Welfare Works :
  • Contributed ₹1 lakh for the establishment of Mayo College (Ajmer).
  • Prohibited sati, the samadhi tradition of ascetics, and female infanticide among Rajputs.
  • Established the first printing press in Marwar, ‘Marwar State Press,’ which published “Marudhar Bhit” (later Marwar Gazette).
  • Opened the Darbar School.
  • Provided land for the construction of railway lines.
• Arts, Literature, and Scholarly Pursuits :
  • Painting – Excessive use of golden colours, increased ornamentation and influence of Company can be seen during his time.
  • Poet Shesh composed the champu kavya ‘Takht Vilas.’
  • Maharana Pratap Kunwari wrote ‘Haripadavali’ and ‘Rampadavali,’ which were later published as ‘Pratapkunwari-Pad-Ratnavali.’
• Construction Activities :
  • Renovated the Chamunda Mata Temple in Jodhpur Fort.
  • Built Man Singh’s Chhatri and Takht Sagar at Mandore.
  • Constructed Shringar Chowki in Mehrangarh Fort and Bijolai Mahal in the Kaylana Hills.

Maharaja Sir Jaswant Singh II(1873-1895)

He Hosted Swami Dayanand in 1883, supporting Arya Samaj principles. Patronized the Arya Samaj, fostering education and reform.

Administrative Reforms:

• Established the Mahkama Khas in April 1873 for efficient governance and public welfare.
• Set up new courts like Adalat Patdarshan for resolving disputes of Brahmins, Charans, and priests, and Court-Sardaran in 1882.

Literary Contributions:

• Court poet Barhath Muraridan composed the literary work ‘Jaswant Raso Bhushan,’ an ornamental text.
• Maharaja honored Muraridan with ‘Kavi Raja’ title and lakh pasav as a reward.
• Established the Tawarikh Ka Mahkama (History Department) in 1888 to document Marwar’s history.

Military Developments:

• Formed Sardar Risala (cavalry platoon) with 600 soldiers in 1889 and expanded it in 1891.

Social works:

• Banned child marriage in 1885.

Maharaja Sir Sardar Singh – (1895 1911)

• Maharaja Sardar Singh commemorated his father, Jaswant Singh II, by constructing Jaswant Thada, located at the foothills of the Mehrangarh Fort in Jodhpur. Often referred to as the “Taj Mahal of Rajasthan,” this marble memorial stands as a testament to architectural elegance.
• Notable Contributions:
  • The Jaswant Female Hospital (a maternity hospital).
  • The Elgin Rajput School (during the visit of Viceroy Lord Elgin to Jodhpur).
  • In 1910, he established the Edward Relief Fund, allocating an annual amount of ₹29,000 to provide pensions for the underprivileged residents of Jodhpur city.
• During the Boxer Rebellion in China, Maharaja Sardar Singh sent the Marwari Army to assist the British. As a mark of honor, “China 1900” was inscribed on the Marwar flag.

Maharaja Sir Umaid Singh (1918-1947)

• Maharaja Umaid Singh commissioned the construction of the Umaid Palace, also known as the Chittar Palace, as a part of famine relief efforts.

Maharaja Sir Hanwant Singh (1947-47) : 

• After the death of Maharaja Umaid Singh, his son, Hanwant Singh, was crowned as the Maharaja of Jodhpur on June 21, 1947. It was during his reign that India gained independence.
• Maharaja Hanwant Singh initially showed interest in aligning Jodhpur with Pakistan and even traveled to Pakistan to meet its founder, Mohammad Ali Jinnah, accompanied by the then Maharaja of Bikaner. 
• However, after persistent efforts and persuasion by V.P. Menon, Lord Mountbatten, and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Maharaja Hanwant Singh reluctantly agreed to accede to the Indian Union.

Rathores of Bikaner

During 15th century when Rao Bika, son of Rao Jodha arrived at Bikaner, the region was possessed by seven Jat cantons namely Sihag, Dhaka, Punia, Godara, Saran, Beniwal, Johiya and Kaswan. Rao Bika used the mutual rivalry existing between Jat clans to carve out space for his own kingdom. According to James Tod, the spot which Bika selected for his capital, was the birthright of a Nehra Jat, who would only concede it for this purpose on the condition that his name should be linked in perpetuity with its surrender. Naira, or Nera, was the name of the proprietor, which Bika added to his own, thus composing that of the future capital, Bikaner.

Rao Bika (1465-1504)

• Due to Rao Jodha appointing Rao Satal Dev as king, Bika, along with his uncle Kandal and younger brother Bida, left Jodhpur.
• In 1465 CE, with the blessings of Karni Mata, Bika established the Rathore kingdom in the Jangladesh region.
• In 1488 CE (Vaishakh Shukla Dwitiya, Samvat 1545), Bika officially founded the city of Bikaner.

Rao Lunkaran (1505-26)

• He attained martyrdom while fighting with Nawab Abi Mira of Narnaul in the Battle of Dhosi in 1526 AD.
• Bittu Souza has called him ‘Kalyug ka Karna’ in his book ‘Rao Jaitsi Ro Chhand’. Jayasom has also compared his generosity to Karna in his book ‘Karmachandravanshotkirtanak Kavyam’. He got ‘Lunkaransar Lake’ constructed

Rao Jait Singh (1526-42)

• In 1534 CE, Rao Jaitsi of Bikaner defeated Kamran, the Mughal ruler of Kabul and brother of Humayun. This victory is described in Rao Jaitsi Ro Chand, written by poet Beethu Suja.
• Paheba / Saheba War (1541-42 CE) : Fought between Rao Jaitsi of Bikaner and Maldev of Marwar. Rao Jaitsi was killed during the war, and Kampa was appointed as the administrator of Bikaner by Maldev.
  • Consequences:
    • Rao Jaitsi’s son, Kalyanmal, sought refuge with Sher Shah Suri, providing Sher Shah with a pretext to attack Marwar.
    • This ultimately led to the Battle of Sumel (1544 CE), where Sher Shah defeated Maldev and gained control of Jodhpur.

Rao Kalyan Singh (1542-71) 

• He became the ruler of Bikaner after the defeat of Maldeo.
• He was the First Rathore to accept Mugal’s Suzerainty.

Prithviraj Rathore

Prithviraj Rathore, son of Rao Kalyanmal of Bikaner, was both a brave warrior and a skilled poet. Known as “Peethal” in Rajasthani literature, he mastered Sanskrit and Dingal. His famous work, “Veli Krishan Rukmani Ri”, is highly revered and called the “5^th Veda” by Durasa Adha. Other notable works include “Dasham Bhagwat Ra Duha”, “Thakur Ji Ra Duha“and “Ganga Lahiri“. He was part of Akbar’s Navratnas and was given Gagron Fort. Colonel Tod and L.P. Tessitori praised him as a great warrior and poet, calling him the “Hero of Dingal.“

Raja Rai Singh I (1571-1611)

Architectural Achievements: 

• Constructed the Junagarh Fort (formerly Chintamani Fort) between 1589-1594 under the supervision of Minister Karmchand.
• Inscribed the Rai Singh Prashasti (eulogy) within the fort.

Art and Literature developments:

• Authored works like
  • Rai Singh Mahotsav (Medical related)
  • Vaidhak Vanshavali, Bal Bodhini, and commentary on Jyotish Ratnamala.
• Praised as ‘Rajendra’ in Karmchand Vanshotkirtankavyam (By Jaisom).
• Initiated the Bikaner School of Painting, with the oldest known manuscript being the Bhagavata Purana, created during his reign.
• Invited Mughal-influenced artists, including Usta Ali Raza, Usta Hamid Ruknuddin, to enrich the region’s artistic traditions.

Famine Relief Efforts:

• Addressed the severe famine during his rule by opening Sadavrats for food distribution and arranging fodder and water for animals.
• Historian Devi Prasad lauded him as the ‘Karna of Rajputana’ for his generosity and compassion.

Rao Karan Singh Jangalpat Badhshah (1631-67)

• Event – Mateere-Ri-Raad (The Watermelon Dispute)

Maharaja Rao Anup Singh (1669-1698)

• 1^st to be granted the title ‘Maharaja’ by Aurangzeb
• Served in the Deccan campaign at Salher in 1672, Bijapur in 1675, and the siege of Golconda in 1687.
• He was administrator of Aurangabad 1677-1678
• Contributions and Achievements : 

Literary Contributions

• Maharaja Anup Singh’s reign is regarded as the “Golden Age of Literature” in Bikaner. A highly learned scholar and a patron of knowledge, he authored notable Sanskrit works like ‘Anup Vivek’ (Tantra Shastra), ‘Kamaprabodh’ (Kama Shastra), ‘Shraddhaprayog Chintamani,’ and ‘Anupoday Tika’ on the Geet Govind. 
• He established the Anup Sanskrit Library, where he preserved numerous rare manuscripts and literary treasures, many of which he acquired from South India. 
• Maharaja Anup Singh was aptly titled the “Progenitor of Scholars” for his support to literary talents. His court was adorned by eminent scholars like Bhav Bhatt, Anant Bhatt, Maniram, Vaidyanath, who enriched Sanskrit literature with works like ‘Jyotpattisara’ (Jyotish), ‘Anup vyavahar Sagar’ (Jyotish), ‘Anup Vilas,’ ‘Dharmambudhi’ (Dharma Shastra), and ‘Teerthratnakar.’

Vernacular literature

• Anoop Singh ji had a great interest in languages, so he got many books translated into Sanskrit and Rajasthani, some of the major books in these are ‘Sukasarika’ (a collection of 72 tales) translated into Rajasthani and Sanskrit, Shridhar’s commentary on the Bhagavad Gita was translated into Marwari emphasizing his commitment to vernacular literature.

Contributions to Music

• Maharaja Anup Singh was an ardent lover of music. His court musician Bhav Bhatt composed several musicological treatises, including ‘Sangeetanupankush,’ ‘Anupsangeetvilas,’ ‘Anupsangeetratnakar,’ and ‘Nashtoddishat Prabodh Kandhopad Tika.’ These works highlight his deep engagement with classical Indian music and its theoretical foundations.

Artistic developments

• Maharaja Anup Singh’s reign marked the Golden Era of Bikaner Painting. The influence of South Indian styles became prominent under his rule, with artists like the Matherna and Usta painters innovating the traditional Bikaner art form.

Maharaja Rao Surat Singh (1787-1828)

• Entered the protection of the East India Company with a subsidiary alliance on 9 March 1818.
• His reign marked the “rise of the British” in the region. He was known for his bravery, virtue, and love for justice. He could not tolerate injustice, but one flaw he had was a “soft-eared”(easily influenced by others) king.

Maharaja Rao Ratan Singh (1828-51)

• Ratan Singh took significant steps to stop female infanticide. He made Rajput rulers pledge at Gaya to not kill their daughters.
• His son, Maharaja Sardar Singh, issued a proclamation in 1854 CE banning Sati Pratha and live burial rituals in his state.
• During the Revolt of 1857, Sardar Singh supported the British and actively suppressed the revolutionaries.

Maharaja Rao Dungar Singh (1872-1887)

• First to introduce electricity to Rajasthan.
• He also sets up a police force, postal system, a hospital and a modern administrative system.
• During his reign The famous ‘Bikaneri Bhujia’ was introduced. He got The Bikaner Fort renovated.

Maharaja Sir Rao Ganga Singh (1887-1943)

• Maharaja Ganga Singh of Bikaner, often hailed as the “Architect of Modern Bikaner” and the “Bhagirath of Modern India,” undertook various transformative initiatives as follows:

Political Contributions:

• Established the Praja Pratinidhi Sabha in 1913, the first step toward a legislative body in Rajasthan.
• Introduced partial internal democracy with elections to municipalities.
• His “Rome Note” played a key role in advocating for self-governance within the British Empire.
• Played a significant role in forming the Narendra Mandal (Chamber of Princes) in 1921 and served as its first president (1921–1925).
• Advocated for princely states’ autonomy before the Butler Committee in 1927.
• Represented India in three Round Table Conferences (1930, 1931, 1932) and the League of Nations (5th session).
• Participated in the Imperial War Cabinet during WWI, the only Indian representative.
• Assisted the British in the Boxer Rebellion in China and received the China War Medal.

Social Contributions:

• Implemented reforms to combat famine and improve living conditions.
• Introduced prison reforms; inmates crafted carpets sold internationally.
• Donated silver gates for the Karni Mata Temple, Deshnok.
• Advocated for irrigation and settlement in the region, particularly among Sikh communities.
• However, He Strictly controlled freedom of expression, evident in the Bikaner Conspiracy Case.

Educational Contributions:

• Established several schools and colleges, including institutions for women.
• Supported Banaras Hindu University as a patron.
• Modernized educational facilities in the state to include a broader curriculum.

Architectural Contributions:

• Constructed the iconic Lalgarh Palace in memory of his father, Lal Singh.
• Renovated and enhanced the Karni Mata Temple and the Ramdevra Temple.
• Developed infrastructure like railways, electricity networks, and irrigation systems.

Military Endeavours:

• Formed Ganga Risala (Camel Corps), which served in World War I. After independence, it laid the foundation for the Border Security Force (BSF) and continues to exist as the Bikaner Camel Corps within the BSF.
• Played a pivotal role in managing British relations and contributing to their military efforts.
• Strengthened internal defense mechanisms within the state.

Economic and Land Reforms:

• Constructed the Ganga Canal (1925-1927) to bring Sutlej waters to the arid Bikaner region, transforming it into a fertile area.
  • Founded and developed Sri Ganganagar, known as the “Grain Bowl of Rajasthan.”
• Attracted industrialists and agriculturists to promote economic ventures.

Personality Evaluation : 

Maharaja Ganga Singh was a visionary ruler who contributed significantly to Bikaner’s growth, with projects like the Gang Canal and advancements in education and infrastructure. His diplomatic efforts, including the “Rome Note,” showed his commitment to India’s future. However, he also had flaws, being autocratic (Bikaner Conspiracy Case) and limiting freedom of expression, as seen in his actions against critics and his exile of Raghuvardayal. Despite these issues, his reforms and leadership were key in shaping modern Bikaner. Overall, Ganga Singh’s contributions were crucial to the state’s development.

Maharaja Sir Rao Sadul Singh (1943-1950)

• He supported the British army during the Second World War.
  He nominated K. M. Pannikar from Bikaner to the Constituent Assembly. 
• Signed the instrument of accession to the Dominion of India on 7 August 1947.
• Merged his state into the present state of Rajasthan, India on 30 March 1949.
• He abolished practices like ‘Nota’ (marriage invitations) and ‘Takhtnashini ki Bhasha’ (Succession Tax) in his kingdom.

The Chauhan Dynasty

• While the earlier versions of Chandbardai’s work Prthviraj Raso does not mention Chauhan as born from Agnikunda, the later versions do.
• The 15th-century Hammira Mahakavya of Nayachandra Suri & Jayanayak’s Prithviraj Vijay consider Chauhans as Suryavanshi and Pandit Gaurishankar Ojha seconds this opinion.
• Based on Bijolia Inscription (1170 CE), Dr. Dasrath Sharma considers that the early ancestor of Chauhan was born at Ahichchhatrapura in the gotra of sage Vatsa. Ahichchhatrapura can be identified with modern Nagaur.
• Chahamanas probably started out as petty rulers of Ahichchhatrapura. As the Chahamana territory expanded, the entire region ruled by them came to be known as Sapadalaksha. 
• In course of time Chauhans formed ruling dynasties at various places. Major Chauhan dynasties include:
  • Chauhans of Shakambhari
  • Chauhans of Ranthambore
  • Chauhans of Jalore
• Apart from these, there are other ruling dynasties that claim Chauhan descent including:

Chauhans of Shakambhari

Vasu-deva (6th century CE)

• Considered as the founder of Shakambhari branch of Chauhans around 551 CE.
• Initial capital – Ahichchatrapur
• According to a mythical account in Prithviraja Vijaya, he received the Sambhar Salt Lake as a gift from a vidyadhara (a supernatural being).

Govinda-Raja I (c. 809-836 CE)

• Alias Guvaka I
• He was the feudal lord of Pratihar ruler Nagbhatta.
• Constructed Harshnath Temple in Sikar.

Ajaya-raja II (c. 1110-1135 CE)

• He founded the city of Ajaymeru (Ajmer) in 1113 AD and got the Ajaymeru fort constructed.
• Moved the capital to Ajaymeru (Ajmer).
• Repulsed a Ghaznavid attack, and also defeated the Paramara king Naravarman.
• Ajayraj was a follower of Shaivism but he looked at Jain and Vaishnav followers with respect.

Arno-raja (c. 1135-1150 CE)

• Alias Anaji
• Defeated Turkish Invaders.
• The Chahamana eulogy highlights several notable achievements of Arnoraja:
  • Turushka Campaign : Arnoraja defeated the Turushkas (Turks) near Ajmer
  • Malwa Victory : He defeated the Malwa ruler Naravarma and annexed parts of his territory.
  • Sindhu-Saraswati Campaign : The Chahamana forces extended their reach to the Sindhu and Saraswati regions.
  • Haritanaka Campaign : Arnoraja launched a campaign in Haritanaka (modern-day Haryana) to assert his dominance.
  • Varan Campaign : He defeated the Dod Rajputs in Bulandshahr (Varan), further expanding his influence.
  • Relations with the Chalukyas: To the south-west of Sapadalaksha was the kingdom of the Chalukyas of Gujarat. During the time of Arnoraj, two powerful kings (Jaisingh Siddharaj and Kumarpal) ruled here

Cultural and Architectural Contributions of Arnoraj :- 

• Pushkar Varaha Temple: Arnoraja built the Varaha Temple at Pushkar, showcasing his patronage of Hindu culture and architecture.
• Anasagar Lake: He constructed the Anasagar Lake in Ajmer by diverting water from the Indu river before the Turushka Campaign.
• Support for Jainism: Arnoraja granted land to followers of the Khartar Gaccha sect of Jainism. Jain scholars like Devbodh and Dharma Ghosh flourished under his patronage and received honors from him.

Vigrahraj IV (1158-1163 CE)

Vigrahraj IV, also known as Bisaldeva, was a prominent ruler of the Chauhan dynasty, renowned for his military conquests, cultural patronage, and administrative brilliance. His reign is hailed as the “Golden Age of the Sapadalaksha Chauhans.” Historian Dasharatha Sharma described him as a commander, conqueror, patron of literature, poet, and creator. Key achievements include:

Military Endeavours:

• He extended his kingdom’s borders from the Himalayas to the Vindhyas, covering the Aryavarta region (ancient land of the Aryans), as recorded in the Delhi-Topra Pillar Inscription.
• Defeated the Chalukya ruler Kumarapala and captured Pali, Nagaur, and Jalore, thus strengthening his hold over Rajasthan.
• Delhi Campaign – He is credited with establishing control over Delhi by defeating the Tomar dynasty.
• He fiercely defended his kingdom against Muslim invaders. Somadeva’s “Lalit Vigrahraj Natak” and the “Prabandha Kosha” describe him as the “Victor of the Turushkas”.
• The Delhi-Topra Inscription mentions that he repeatedly defeated the Mlechchhas (Muslim invaders).

Cultural and Literary contributions:

• Vigrahraj IV was a scholar-king and patron of art and literature.
• He himself authored the Sanskrit drama “Harikeli.”
• His court became a hub of literary and cultural activity thus, Scholar Jayanak Bhatt conferred the title “Kavi Bandhav” (Friend of Poets) upon him.
• His court poets included
  • Somadeva, who wrote “Lalit Vigrahraj Natak”, narrating Vigrahraj’s love story with Desal Devi, the princess of Indrapur.
  • Padmanabha, who acted as the cultural minister and organized intellectual gatherings.
• Historian Kilhorn praised him, stating, “He was one of the rare Hindu kings who could compete with Kalidasa and Bhavabhuti.”

Architectural Contributions:

• Built the Saraswati Kanthabharan School (Ajmer), which demonstrated the zenith of Hindu architecture. It was later desecrated and converted into the “Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra” by Qutbuddin Aibak.
• The temple premises included a Vishnu temple adorned with sacred Hindu sculptures.
• Constructed the Bisalsagar Dam in Bisalpur (Tonk) to improve irrigation and water management.
• Fortified several hill forts and built victory memorials to commemorate his conquests.

Religious Policies and Inclusivity:

• Vigrahraj IV, though a Shaivite, displayed religious tolerance and supported Jainism.
• He constructed Jain viharas and participated in Jain festivities.
• Following the advice of Jain saint Dharmaghosh Suri, he prohibited animal slaughter on Ekadashi.

Prithviraj III (c. 1178-1192 CE)

Prithviraj Chauhan, regarded as the most prominent ruler of the Chauhan dynasty of Ajmer, was born in 1166 AD in Anhilapat (Gujarat). During his reign, the Chauhan dynasty not only expanded its political power but also contributed significantly to the cultural sphere. His court was adorned with many scholars and poets, making his reign memorable in history and literature.

Court Scholars: 

• Chand Bardai – His real name was ‘Prithvibhatta.’ He was Prithviraj’s royal poet, friend, and confidant. Chand Bardai authored the ‘Prithviraj Raso’, which was completed by his son Jalhan.
• Jayanak – A Kashmiri poet who wrote ‘Prithviraj Vijay,’ detailing the reign of the Chauhans of Ajmer.
• Other – Ashadhar, Janardan, Vidyapati Gaud, and Vagishwara 

Political Challenges: 

• Suppression of Nagarjuna – After ascending the throne at a young age, Prithviraj faced rebellion from his relative Nagarjuna, who claimed himself the rightful heir. In 1178 AD prithviraj defeated him in a battle that took place in Gurgaon.
• The Bhandanak community – from the Sutlej region sought control over Gurgaon, Hisar, and nearby areas. In 1182 AD, Prithviraj suppressed their revolt, securing his northwestern frontier.
• Conflict with the Chandelas – The Chandela ruler Paramardi Dev of Mahoba attacked Prithviraj’s army. In 1182 AD, Prithviraj defeated the Chandelas in the Battle of Mahoba.
• Chauhan-Chalukya Conflict (1184–87 AD) –
  • Reasons of conflict :
    1. The murder of Someshwara by Bhima II.
    2. Prithviraj’s marriage to Ichhini Devi, a princess of Abu.
    3. In 1184 AD, Prithviraj defeated Bhima II in the Battle of Nagaur.
    4. In 1187 AD, peace was restored through the mediation of Jagadev Pratihara.
    5. Ambitions of territorial expansion.
• Chauhan-Gahadavala Rivalry – The rivalry began when Vigrahraj IV defeated Vijaychand Gahadwal for control of Delhi. It escalated further due to Prithviraj’s ‘Digvijay Policy’ and his abduction of Sanyogita, the daughter of Jaichand Gahadwal.

Prithviraj Vs Moh. Gauri

Battles of Tarain 1191 & 1192

The Battles of Tarain(Haryana), also known as the Battles of Taraori, were a series of two battles fought in 1191 and 1192 A.D between Prithviraj Chauhan III of Ajmer and Ghurid ruler Mu’izz al-Din Muhammad or Mohd. Ghori.

Mohd. Ghori –  Mohd. Ghazni established the Ghaznavi empire with capital at Ghazni. After his death, Ghazni was Oghuz Turks. Ghori defeated the Turks and laid the foundation of the Ghurid empire. After having made His position strong and secure at Ghazni, Muhammad Ghori turned his attention to India.

• 1175 – Ghori captured Multan, occupied the whole of Sind.
• 1178 – Got defeated in the Battle of Kayadara (Gujarat), from Bhimdev Solanki-II (ruler of Gujarat). 
• 1186 – he attacked Punjab, and defeated Khusru Malik and added Malik’s empire to his dominions. Ghori returned back to Ghanzi to help his brother, only to return in 1191.

The first Battle of Tarain (1191) –

• In 1191, Ghori proceeded towards India through the Khyber Pass and captured a fortress of Bathinda.
• Realising the threat, the Hindu princes of north India formed a confederacy under the command of Prithiviraj Chauhan.
• Prithviraj’s army, led by his vassal prince Govind Tai marched on to Bhatinda and met his enemy at a place called Tarain.
• Ghori was wounded in a personal battle with Govind Tai and so Ghori’s army retreated, giving victory to Prthviraj Chauhan.
• Alternatively it has also been mentioned that Ghori’s army surrendered and Muhammad was made prisoner. Muhammad of Ghor begged for mercy and Prithviraj pardoned him.
• After the first Battle : Ghori returned to Ghazni, and started preparations to avenge the defeat. When he reached Lahore, he sent his envoy to Prithviraj to demand his submission, but the Chauhan ruler refused to comply.

The Second Battle of Tarain (1192) – 

• In 1192, Ghori challenged Prithviraj and a battle ensued at the same place (Tarain) 
• Both Ghori and Prithviraj increased their army’s strength. But Ghori changed his tactics as he did not want to engage in melee combat with disciplined Rajput warriors.
• He divided his huge troop into 5 parts and four units were sent to attack the Rajput flanks and rear. 
• Hoping for a Rajput attack, Ghori ordered his fifth unit to fast retreat. As Ghori expected, the Rajput’s charged the fleeing Ghurid unit. The Ghurids then sent a fresh cavalry unit of 12,000 and they managed to throw back the Rajput advance.
• Ghori won the second Battle of Tarain.

Reason of defeat of prithviraj chauhan :-

• According to ‘Minhaj-us-Siraj’ “Ghori’s army was well organized and Prithviraj’s army was completely disorganized.
• Lack of central leadership due to the feudal army.
• Lack of strategic foresight and diplomacy.
• Allowing Ghori enough time to prepare for the second battle.
• Use of elephants in the army, which were less effective against Ghori’s cavalry.
• Betrayal by ministers Someshwara and Pratapasimha.

Theories About Prithviraj Chauhan’s Death-

• Prithviraj Raso: Prithviraj Chauhan was taken to Ghor as a prisoner, where he used his skill of shabd bhedi baan (archery guided by sound) to kill Muhammad Ghori.
• Isami’s Account: Isami suggests that Prithviraj continued to rule Ajmer under Ghurid suzerainty for some time. However, he was later executed by Muhammad Ghori.
• Minhaj-us-Siraj: This version states that Muhammad Ghori killed Prithviraj Chauhan during the Battle of Tarain on the battlefield itself.

Outcomes of the Battle of Tarain : 

• The Battles of Tarain and Chandawar laid the foundation for establishment of Turkish rule in India.
• Key regions like Hansi, Sirsa, Samana, Ajmer, and Delhi came under Muslim rule.
• Suppressed the rising ambitions of the Rajputs; after Prithviraj Chauhan, no Rajput ruler could regain Delhi.
• Established economic and cultural ties between India and Central Asia.
• Impact on Indian Culture
  • Positive
    • Spread of Persian art and architectural styles.
    • Development of a composite Hindu-Muslim culture, evident in architecture and paintings.
    • Emergence of Bhakti and Sufi movements.
    • Expansion of trade, urbanization, and crafts brought significant changes to Indian society. Irfan Habib: Referred to it as the “New Urban Revolution.”
  • Negative
    • Decline of Hindu and Buddhist cultures (as noted by V.A. Smith and R.C. Majumdar).
    • Damage to art, literature and architecture for eg- Bakhtiyar Khilji destroying Universities of Nalanda & Vikramshila in the process

Contributions of Prithviraj Chauhan in Art and Literature :- 

• Historian Dr. Dasharatha Sharma described him as a “capable and enigmatic ruler” who promoted art, culture, and inclusivity.
• Patron of Scholars and Artists : His court was adorned with eminent scholars like Chand Bardai, the author of Prithviraj Raso, and Jayanak, who wrote Prithviraj Vijay
• Promoted education : commitment to education is evident from institutions like Saraswati Kanthabharan, which offered education in 85 subjects, alongside many other schools that thrived under his royal patronage
• Literary contribution : During his reign, Jain scholars like Jindatt Suri, Jin Vallabh, and Jinapati Suri contributed significantly to religious and cultural literature, authoring works like Updesharasayan-ras, Charchari, Kalaswaroop Kulak, and Prabodh Vadasthala. These texts, written in Sanskrit, Apabhramsha, and regional dialects, reflect the literary vibrance of his era.
• Architectural contributions : He constructed Rai Pithora Fort in Delhi and the fortification of Taragarh Fort to protect his capital. In Ajmer, he expanded the city by constructing temples and palaces, further enhancing its grandeur. 
• Promoter of All Religions : Prithviraj was known for his secular outlook and respect for all religions. Jain scholars like Jindatt Suri, Jin Vallabh, and Jinapati Suri authored significant works, such as Updesharasayan-ras, Charchari, Kalaswaroop Kulak, and Prabodh Vadasthala.

Govinda-raja IV (c. 1192 CE)

• Banished by Hari-raja for accepting Muslim suzerainty;
• Established the Chauhan branch of Ranthambore

Chauhans of Ranthambore

The Chahamana dynasty of Ranastambhapura was founded by Govinda-raja, a member of the Shakambhari Chahamana family (Chauhans of Ajmer). Govinda was the son of Prithviraj III, who was defeated and killed by the Ghurids in 1192 CE.

After the defeat, the Ghurid ruler Muhammad of Ghor appointed Govinda as his vassal at Ajmer. However, Hari-raj , Prithviraja’s brother, overthrew Govinda and assumed control of Ajmer. Govinda then established a new kingdom with Ranthambore (modern Ranthambore) as its capital.

After Balban’s death in 1286, Delhi faced a leadership vacuum for about four years, allowing Hammir to consolidate power. Neighboring states, including Malwa and Gujarat, were declining, while Chittor’s ruler, Samarsingh, lacked expansionist ambitions. Hammir utilized this opportunity to strengthen his position.

Political Challenges and Conquests :

• Hammir Dev adopted an aggressive expansion policy to consolidate Ranthambore’s influence. He conquered whole north-western rajput rulers. Initially, Jalaluddin Khilji attacked Ranthambhore in 1290, Later Alauddin Khilji, after usurping the throne, clashed with Hammir.

Conflict with Jalaluddin Khilji : 

• Jalaluddin Khilji attacked Ranthambhore in 1290 but failed to capture it despite succeeding at Jhain fort. He launched another attack in 1299 but faced similar defeat

Hammir and Alauddin Khilji : 

• Reasons for Attack:
  • Non-payment of tribute: Hammir stopped paying taxes to the Delhi Sultanate.
  • Sheltering Mongol rebels: Hammir provided refuge to Muhammad Shah and Kebrü, Mongol leaders who had revolted against Alauddin.
  • Conquering Ranthambore was pivotal for Alauddin Khalji’s expansionist ambitions and served as a critical step in advancing his southern campaign.

The Battle for Ranthambore:

• In 1299 AD, Alauddin Khalji sent Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan to subdue Hammir. They started by capturing Jhayan Fort, but Hammir’s forces defeated them near the Banas River, where Nusrat Khan was killed.
• In response, Alauddin personally led a massive siege of Ranthambore in 1301 AD.
• The siege lasted almost a year, causing severe famine in the fort. Using treachery, Alauddin convinced Hammir’s generals (Ratipal, Ranmal, and Sargun Shah) to defect.
• Starvation weakened the defenders, leading to the infamous Johar under Hammir’s wife, Rangdevi, and Kasariya  by rajput soldiers under Hammir deo. 
• On July 11, 1301, Ranthambore fell to Alauddin Khilji.

Personality Evaluation : 

• Hammir was a multifaceted ruler, celebrated for his valor, unwavering principles, and exceptional leadership but occasionally criticized for administrative misjudgments, such as holding Dharmasingh responsible for Bhim Singh’s death and subsequently blinding him. He is remembered as a staunch protector of Hindu values and traditions, with unmatched generosity and hospitality, exemplified by his decision to protect Mongol refugees despite significant risks. His military prowess is evident from the 17 wars he fought, winning 16 of them. Chandrashekhar immortalized Hammir’s determination in Hammir Hatha:

“Singh suvan, satpurush vachan, kadli falat ek bar
Tiriya tel, Hammir hatha, chadhe na duji bar.”

• This verse highlights Hammir’s uncompromising nature, which became a defining feature of his legacy.

Cultural and Artistic Contributions : 

• Hammir was a patron of art and culture. His court housed renowned scholars such as Raghav Dev and Bijaditya.
• He organized the grand “Koti-Yajna,” employing Vishwaswaroop as the chief priest.
• Hammir constructed the 32-pillared cenotaph in memory of his father Jaitra Singh, symbolizing his 32-year reign.
• He built the Padmala Talab named after his daughter and a golden pavilion called Pushyak at Ranthambhore. 
• His literary contribution, “Shringar Haar,” is an epic text on music.

Chauhans of Jalore

Prathihar king VatsaRaja was the ruler of Jalore during the 8th century. Towards the end of the 12th Century, Parmars ruled here. Historians believe that the Jalore fort was built by Parmar rulers. It is known from a stone inscription of 1238 A.D. of the fort that Parmar King Biral’s-queen Maludevi powered Gold win on Sindhu King.

Kirtipal Chauhan  (1160-1182 CE)

• He was the younger son of Nadol king Alhan.
• Established the Chauhan empire by defeating the Parmaras in 1181 AD.

• Udaya-simha (c. 1204-1257 CE)
• Chachiga-deva (c. 1257-1282 CE)
• Samanta-simha (c. 1282-1305 CE)

Kanhada-deva (c. 1291-1311 CE)

• The most glorious and last ruler among the Chauhans of Jalore.
• During his reign, Alauddin Khilji attacked Jalore.

• Reason :
  • Imperialistic ambitions of Alauddin Khilji.
  • He denied entry of the royal army into jalore and attacked them on their return during Gujrat campaign of Alauddin.
  • According to Kanhad-de-Prabandh by Padmanabh, a love affair between Kanhad De’s son Viramdev and Alauddin Khalji’s daughter Firoza was one of the reasons for the attack.

1308 : Battle of Siwana

• Forces of Alauddin Khilji besieged the fort, the people led by Sutal Deo (Sheetal Deo) mounted a heroic defence but could not prevent them from falling.
• First Sakka of Siwana:
  • Jauhar- Led by Rani Mena de
  • Kesariya- Led by Satal de

1310-14 : Battle of Jalore

• Allauddin attacked Jalore with a huge force of 50,000 men. Kanhad Dev with an army of 5,000 men defended Jalore for 3-4 years before it fell. 
• An insider Dahiya Sardar Bika at Jalore fort was bribed by Allauddin and he let the back door open to facilitate the entry of enemy troops of Turks. 
• First and Last Saka of jalore:
  • Jauhar- Led by Rani jaitelde
  • Kesariya- Led by Kanhad De
• Result of Battle of Jalore:
• Alauddin Khilji plundered the city and enslaved the populace.
• Mal Dev Sonagra, the younger brother of Kanhad Dev was the only survivor and rewarded by the Sultan and was appointed as the governor of Chittor by the Sultan.
• Jalore continued to remain under the sultanate until the sultanate was overthrown.

Subsequent Rulers:

• Rathore king Rao Maldev ruled the fort of Jalore in the 15th Century.
• During Akbar’s rule, Abdul Rahim Khan Khana took it infinitely from Gazni Khan.
• King Jahangir built the walls of the fort.
• After the death of Aurangzeb it permanently became a part of Jodhpur.

The Kingdom of Mewar

The kingdom of Mewar includes present day districts of Chittorgarh, Rajsamand, Udaipur, Dungarpur, Banswara. The region was originally called Medhpaat/Shivi/Pragvat and Lord Shiva (Ekling Nath) is called Medhpateshwar (Lord of Medhpaat). Over time, the name Medhpath became Mewar.

The creators of Mewar’s ruling dynasty in Rajputana came originally from the Guhilot clan. Foundation stories claim this clan originated in Kashmir and migrated to Gujarat in the sixth century. In the seventh century they migrated again, to the plains of Mewar, in the area around Magda, which was named after one of the earliest clan leaders.

Guhils of Chittorgarh

Guhil (566-586 CE)

• He is known as the founder of the Guhil dynasty.
• Rawal Guhil, the founder of Mewar Dynasty was the descendant of Siladitya VI (the King of Vallabhi, Gujarat).
• When Guhil’s mother Pushpavati was on pilgrimage, Vallabhi was invaded and destroyed. 
• Guhil survived due to his mother established the Guhilot dynasty.

Bappa Rawal (586-606 CE)

• He is also known as Kalbhoj.
• With the blessings of his guru Maharishi Harit Rashi, he defeated Maan Mori and laid the foundation of Guhilot Dynasty rule in Mewar.
• Formed a triple alliance with Nagabhatta & Jayasimha to defeat Arabs in the Battle of Rajasthan.

Battle of Rajasthan : 738 AD

• It is a group of battles in which Gurjar-Hindu alliance defeated the Arab invaders.
  • Gurjar-Hindu alliance – Nagabhata-1 of gurjar-pratihars, Bappa rawal of guhils, Jaisingh Verman of Rashtrakuta.
• By the late 7th century CE, Islam and the Arabs had become powerful forces, expanding into Iran and Afghanistan under Muhammad ibn Qasim. In 730 CE, his successor, Junayd ibn Abd al-Rahman, launched an invasion into Hindustan, plundering Rajasthan, Malwa, and Gujarat. Despite being heavily outnumbered, their forces defeated the Arabs in the Battle of Rajasthan, killing Emir Junaid. This defeat crippled the Arabs, and their subsequent attempts failed, safeguarding Hindustan from Arab invasions for 200 years.

Architecture Development

• Sahastrabahu Temple (Mahamaru Style), Eklingji Temple Kailashpuri (Udaipur)

Khuman II (828 – 853 CE)

• Repelled up to 24 Muslim attacks

Allat/Allu Rawal (943 – 953 CE)

• Rawal Allat, also known as Allu Rawal, was a notable ruler of Mewar whose reign marked a period of prosperity, religious harmony, and cultural growth. He established himself as a capable administrator, builder, and promoter of trade and commerce.

Achievements:

• Marriage Alliance-
  • married Hariyadevi, a princess from the Huna dynasty, symbolizing his strategic diplomatic alliances.
• Administrative and Commercial Reforms
  • Transformed Ahar (Aatpur) into a vibrant administrative, religious, and commercial hub and made his second capital after Nagda.
  • The credit-forming bureaucracy in Mewar also goes to Allat.
• Religious Patronage
  • His court welcomed scholars and religious debates, as evidenced by the Jain saint Pradyuman Suri defeating Digamber saints in a debate, showing that all religions were respected in Mewar.

Architectural development

• Saraneshwar temple dedicated to Vishnu in his Varaha form was constructed in his reign.
• He also built the Ambika mata temple of Jagat which is also called as ‘Khajuraho of Mewar’.

Kshem Singh (1168 – 1172)

• Kshemsingh had two sons: Samantsingh and Kumarsingh.
• Samantsingh(1172 – 1179) married Prithvi Bai, sister of Prithviraj III Chauhan of Ajmer.
• During Samantsingh’s time, Kirtipal Chauhan of the Nadol branch attacked and captured Chittorgarh, forcing Samantsingh to leave.
• Samantsingh established his kingdom in the Vagad region and made Vatbhadrak (Baroda) his capital.
• In 1192 CE, Samantsingh attained martyrdom while fighting Muhammad Ghori in the Second Battle of Tarain.
• Kumarsingh(1179 – 1191) later defeated Kirtipal Chauhan and regained Chittorgarh.

Jait Singh / Jaitra Singh (1213 – 1253)

• According to the Chirwa inscription, Jaitra Singh defeated the Chalukya ruler Tribhuvan of Gujarat at Kotada. 
• Inscription also provides information about Sultan Illtutmish attacking Mewar, in the battle of Bhutala(1227 AD), the capital city of Nagda was destroyed by the Sultan and he was later defeated by Rawal Jaitra Singh.
• After this incident, he shifted the capital of Mewar to Chittor permanently.
• According to Dr. Dasharath Sharma, Jaitra’s reign is considered the golden period of Mewar’s early medieval history.

Tej Singh (1261 – 1267)

• During Tejsingh’s reign, Sultan Balban of Delhi unsuccessfully attacked Mewar.
• Queen Jaital De constructed the Shyam Parshvanath Temple in Chittorgarh.
• In 1260 CE, in Ahar (Udaipur), Shravak Pratikraman Sutra Churni, the first illustrated manuscript of the Mewar painting style, was created by Kamalchandra.

Ratan Singh (1302 – 1303)

• Last Guhilot king to rule.
• 1303 – 1st Jauhar of Chittor
  • In 1303 AD, Alauddin Khilji attacked the impregnable Chittorgarh fort, driven by his obsession with Queen Padmini’s beauty. 
  • Rana Ratan Singh, out of courtesy, allowed Khilji to view Padmini through mirrors, further fueling Khilji’s desire. 
  • Using treachery, Khilji captured Rana and demanded Padmini in exchange for his release. 
  • Padmini devised a plan, sending 700 armed soldiers disguised in litters to rescue the Rana. Though successful initially, Khilji pursued them, leading to a fierce battle at the fort’s gate where Rana was killed. 
  • Khilji captured the fort on August 26, 1303. Refusing to surrender, Queen Padmini and the royal women performed Jauhar. 
  • The administration of Mewar was handed to Maldeo, the ruler of Jalore

Reasons for Khilji’s Attack on Chittorgarh :-

• Khilji’s imperialist ambitions.
• Samarsingh’s tax collection from the royal army heading to Gujarat.
• Strategic significance of Chittorgarh fort (strong hills, massive walls, and storage of food and water).
• Chittorgarh’s location between Gujarat and Malwa, enhancing its importance.
• Growing power and influence of Mewar.
• The legendary beauty of Queen Padmini, as mentioned in Padmavat.
• Economic and commercial prosperity (abundance of silver and zinc deposits used for making the armoury) of Mewar was also one of the reasons behind the attack.

Sisodias of Mewar

Rana Hammir (1326-64)

• In 1303 AD, during Alauddin Khilji’s siege of Chittorgarh, the Rawal branch of the Guhil dynasty was wiped out.
• Alauddin renamed Chittorgarh as “Khizrabad” after his son Khizr Khan and appointed him as the fort’s administrator.
• Later, Khilji handed over the fort to Sonagara Chauhan ruler Maldeo(ruler of Merta), but Maldeo failed to maintain control over it.
• Maldeo married his widowed daughter Songari with Rana Hammir.
• Following Alauddin’s death in 1316 AD, the weakened Delhi Sultanate allowed regional powers to rise.
• In 1326 AD, Hammir Sisodia, a descendant of the Guhil dynasty, reclaimed Chittorgarh and re-established Guhil rule.
• With this victory, the rulers of Mewar began to be called “Sisodias.”

Rana Lakha (1382- 1421)

• Rao Ranmal of Mandore proposed his sister Hansabai’s marriage to Chunda, the heir of Mewar, but due to a miscommunication, Hansabai married Maharana Lakha instead. Chunda selflessly gave up his birthright for the male hei (Rana Mokal) and was thus called the “Bhishma” of Mewar.
• In compensation, Maharana Lakha granted Chunda the following privileges:
  • His descendants were named Chundawat.
  • His symbol Lance (Bhala) was superadded to the autograph of prince in all grants to vassals.
  • Chundawats would serve in the Harawal (elite military).
  • Four of Mewar’s top 16 territories, including Salumber, were given to them.
  • The ruler of Salumber would hold the title “Rawat” and assist in royal functions.
  • The Rawat of Salumber would manage the capital in the king’s absence.
  • All royal edicts required Rawat’s signature.

Economic Development of Mewar:

• The excavation of silver mines at Zawar during his reign contributed significantly to the prosperity of Mewar.
• Delwara, strategically located on the north-west trade route, became a major trade and commerce center.
• Maharana Lakha personally encouraged merchants to settle in Mewar, boosting its economic growth.

Architectural and Cultural Development:

•  Poets like Joting Bhatt and Dhaneshwar in his court.
• He commissioned the construction of tanks at Chittor, Kelawara, and Lakhawali.
• During his reign, Banjara Chhitar constructed the famous Pichola Lake in the Girwa valley.

Rana Mokal Singh (1421-1433)

• After the death of Maharana Lakha, Mokal succeeded in 1421 CE. 
• As he was a minor, Chunda looked after affairs of the state. There were differences between Chunda and Rajmata Hansabai so she asked Rao Ranmal to interfere in Mewar. 
• The arrival of Rao Ranmal greatly influenced the royal family of Mewar but later understood the intentions of Ranmal.
• Rani called back Choonda, who came in and rescued Mokul Singh.
• Had 3 sons = Rana Kumbha + 2 & daughter Lal Bae.

Rana Kumbha (1433-68)

Maharana Kumbha was one of the most illustrious rulers of Mewar, renowned for his military prowess,scholarship, architectural achievements, and cultural contributions. Born in 1417 CE to Maharana Mokal and Maharani Sobhagya Devi at Deogarh, Madaria, he ascended the throne of Mewar in 1433 CE, transforming it into a powerful kingdom. 

Initial Challenges Faced by Kumbha:

• Mewar-Malwa Conflict : Relations marked by frequent conflicts over territorial and political dominance, while eventually led to several battles.
• Mewar-Gujarat Relations : Relations soured due to succession disputes in Nagaur. In 1456 CE, Kumbha helped Shams Khan become ruler of Nagaur. However, Shams Khan allied with Sultan Qutb-ud-din of Gujarat, prompting Kumbha to attack and defeat the combined forces.
• Treaty of Champaner (1456 CE): A pact between Mahmud Khalji of Malwa and Qutb-ud-din of Gujarat against Kumbha. The agreement aimed to divide Mewar post-victory, with the southern region going to Gujarat and the central part to Malwa. The joint forces attacked Mewar in 1457 CE but failed to achieve significant success.

No.	Battle	Year	Outcome
1	Battle of Sarangpur	1437 CE	Victory for Kumbha; commemorated by the construction of Vijay Stambh.
2	Attack on Kumbhalgarh	1442-43 CE	Indecisive outcome.
3	Attack on Gagron	1444 CE	Victory for Mahmud Khalji; Achal Singh became a vassal of Kumbha.
4	Attacks on Mandalgarh	1446 CE (2 attacks) and 1456 CE	All three attacks were inconclusive.
5	Attack on Ajmer	1455 CE	Briefly controlled by Malwa after defeating Mewar’s governor Gajadhar Singh.

Kumbha and his achievements-

Military and strategic skills : 

• Maharana Kumbha inherited a kingdom facing significant internal and external challenges. However, his exceptional military and strategic skills helped him overcome these adversities.
  • His first act as ruler was avenging his father, Maharana Mokal’s murder. 
  • He curbed Ranmal Rathore’s influence in Mewar and later eliminated him. Through the “Awal-Babal Treaty” mediated by Hansa Bai, peace was restored.
  • He defended Mewar from invasions by Malwa, Gujarat, and Nagaur, ensuring its sovereignty. Initially limited to Chittor, Mewar expanded under his leadership to include Abu, Gagron, Ranthambore, Amber, Pokhran, Phalodi, and Kanthal.

The Treaty of Anwal-Babal (1453 CE) was Signed between Rana Kumbha of Mewar and Rao Jodha of Marwar to resolve boundary disputes and strengthen relations. Mediated by Hansabai, This treaty established the boundary between Marwar and Mewar, with Sojat as the central reference point. The boundary was determined based on the trees in the region: areas with khejri trees belonged to Marwar, while areas with mango trees were part of Mewar. The treaty also included the marriage of Rao Jodha’s daughter, Shringar Devi, to Kumbha’s son, Raymal, further solidifying the alliance.

Architectural Legacy :

• Maharana Kumbha, known as the “Father of Rajasthani Architecture,” made monumental contributions to Mewar’s architecture. Of Mewar’s 82 forts, he constructed 32, with key architects ‘Shilpacharya’ Mandan and Jaita.
  • To keep a strong hold on Mewar’s boundaries Kumbha built the Achalgarh and Vasantgarh forts at Abu. For the boundaries near Godwar, the mighty fort of Kumbhalgarh and 36 k.m.  long fort wall was constructed circling the fort. Machan fort was built to prevent the growing influence of the Mers. 
  • He also renovated Chittorgarh fort, changed the entrance from the East and constructed 7 gates for the entrance in the fort on the West side.  
  • Temple architecture – The Architecture in Mewar reached millstones in Kumbha’s reign with Kumbh Swami temple and Shringar Chawri in Chittorgarh fort, Kumbha Shyam temple in Achalgarh, renovation at Shree Eklingnath Ji Temple, Shwetambar Jain Temple and Vishnu Temple in Nagda, Mamadev Temple and Yagyavedi in Kumbhalgarh, Shantinath Temple, Khartargach Temple Abu, Chaumukha Temple Ranakpur etc.
  • Along with the temple and forts, many ponds and step wells were constructed. Also to commemorate his epic victory over Malwa, Kumbha ordered construction of the unparalleled nine stories Kirti Stambh or Vijay stambh popularly known as also known as ‘Devta Murti Kosh’ or museum of idols.

Cultural Patronage :

• Maharana Kumbha was not only a warrior but also a scholar and a lover of arts and culture.
• Literature : He authored notable works such as Sangeet Raj, Sood Prabandha, and a commentary on Geet Govind in the Mewar dialect. His court was graced by renowned scholars like Kanhad Vyas (author of Ekling Mahatmya), Poet Meha (writer of Teerthmala), and Atri and Mahesh Bhatt (creators of Kirti Stambh Prashasti).

• Music : His compositions (SangeetRaj, Sangeet Ratnakar, Vadhya Prabandhak ) and introduction of “Kumbh Malhar” enriched the Indian classical music tradition. He is known as ‘Abhinav Bharatacharya’ and ‘Veena Vaden Praveenan’.
• Dance : His book Nritya Ratna Kosh provides a description of the various postures in acting, which validicts his knowledge of dance.
• Painting : He is called the father of Rajasthani painting. The independent development of Rajasthani painting is considered to have started during Kumbha’s period. Under the patronage of Maharana Kumbha, illustrated texts ‘Rasikashtak‘ by Pandit Bhishmchand and ‘Gita Govind Akhyika‘ by Pandit Ramish in Gogunda were written. In this period, the text ‘Supaas Nah Chariyan‘ was illustrated. Detailed information related to painting is also received from ‘Rajavallabh Mandan‘ in which instructions were given to paint beautiful paintings in palaces and temples. In the era of Maharana Kumbha, Delwara was the center of painting. 

Economic Development :

• Kumbha’s reign saw Mewar’s economy flourish, supported by trade centers like Delwara, Ahar, and Nagda.
• Mining activities in Zawar contributed to economic prosperity.
• His coins, primarily in copper, reflect Mewar’s economic stability.

Rana Sanga / Sangram Singh (1508-1528)

• Before becoming the ruler, Rana Sanga lost one of his eyes during a conflict with his brothers, Prithviraj and Jaymal, and spent time in exile at the residence of Karamchand Puwar in Srinagar (Ajmer).
• Battle of Khatauli & Badi (1518) – Under his leadership, Mewar’s boundaries were strengthened and expanded due to his military strategies and farsightedness. Sultan Sikander Lodhi of Delhi, unable to tolerate Mewar’s growing influence, sought to challenge his expansion. In 1517, Sanga defeated Sultan Ibrahim Lodhi of Delhi in the Battle of Khatauli (Bundi), and again in 1518 in the Battle of Badi (Dholpur).
• Battle of Gagron (1519) – Rana Sanga advanced with a large army from Chittor reinforced by the Rathors of Merta under Rao Viramdev, and met Sultan Mahmud Khilji II, accompanied by the Gujarat auxiliaries under Asaf Khan. The Sultan’s forces could not withstand the furious onslaught of the Rajputs and sustained a complete defeat. Most of his officers were killed and the army was nearly annihilated. Rana Sanga treated the Sultan with honor and restored him his kingdom

Babar-Sanga Relations

• Reasons for conflict between Babur and Sanga-
  • Babur accused Sanga of betrayal, claiming in Tuzuk-e-Babri that Sanga had invited him to attack Delhi while promising to assault Agra, but this accusation seems implausible as Sanga had already defeated the Delhi Sultan twice.
  • Their ambitions clashed, with Babur aiming to conquer all of India, which required defeating Sanga, a prominent “Hindupat.”
  • The Rajput-Afghan alliance posed a significant threat to Babur, as Afghan leaders Hasan Khan Mewati and Mahmud Lodi (brother of Ibrahim Lodi) sought refuge with Sanga after Panipat’s defeat.
  • Sanga seized Sultanate territories like Khandar Fort (Sawai Madhopur) and 200 nearby villages, leveraging the chaos post-Panipat.

• Battle of Bayana – Sanga achieved a major victory in February 1527 at the Battle of Bayana, where Babur’s fort guardian, Mehndi Khwaja, was defeated.
• Battle of Khanwa (1527) – It was fought near the village of Khanwa on March 17, 1527, between the invading forces of the first Mughal Emperor Babur and the Rajput forces led by Rana Sanga of Mewar. Babur’s superior generalship, cannons, artillery and organizational skills proved decisive and Rana Sanga was defeated. The victory consolidated the rule of the Mughal dynasty in India.
• Reasons for Sanga’s defeat in the battle of Khanwa- 
  • After the victory at Bayana, Sanga delayed the battle, giving Babur enough time to prepare.
  • Rajput traditional warfare tactics and weapons were less effective against Babur’s artillery and Turkish-style battle techniques, which proved decisive.
  • Sanga’s injury and withdrawal from the battlefield demoralized the Rajput forces.
  • Lack of unity in the Rajput command as the army was led by different chieftains, which affected coordination.
  • Salhadi Tanwar of Raisin and Khanzada of Nagaur met Babar in the last phase of the war.

Evaluation of Rana’s Personality-

Rana Sanga is remembered as the last great Hindu ruler of India, whose leadership united all Rajput factions to fight against foreign invaders. His valiant efforts in defending his country left him physically scarred—he lost one eye, one hand, and one leg, and his body bore 80 sword wounds. Babar described him as a formidable ruler. His economic stability is reflected in the land grants issued during his reign, as evidenced by inscriptions at the Nilkanth (Mamadev) temple at Kumbhalgarh and the Dovani copper plate, which highlight his generosity. Additionally, he issued copper coins, known as Sangram Sahi coins, which became popular during his rule. If his successors had been as capable, the Mughal empire might not have been able to establish itself in India. Renowned historian Colonel Tod referred to him as “a soldier’s fragment” due to his physical injuries, further cementing his legacy as a warrior of unmatched bravery. Sanga’s selflessness and commitment to his country were evident when, in the joy of capturing Mahmud Khilji, he granted the entire kingdom of Chittorgarh to the poet Charan Haridas, although Haridas chose only 12 villages as his reward. Rana Sanga’s name remains immortal as a symbol of resistance, courage, and sacrifice.

Vikramaditya Singh (1531–1536)

• During his reign, Sultan of Gujarat Bahadur Shah sacked Chittor in 1534, Udai Singh was sent to Bundi for safety.
• Rana Sanga’s wife Karnavati sends Rakhi to Humayun.
• But Humayun late – 2^nd Jauhar of Chittor (1535)
  • Kesariya – Dewalia thakur Bagh Singh
  • Jauhar – Queen Karmavati
  • Bahadur Shah became the Sultan of Gujarat in 1526 and expanded his rule, capturing Malwa (1531) and Raisen (1532). He then besieged Chittor Fort. Rani Karnavati appealed to Humayun for help, sending him a rakhi. Humayun accepted but could not reach in time. To protect young Udai Singh, he was sent to Bundi. On 8 March 1535, Rani Karnavati and 13,000 women committed Jauhar, while the Rajput army fought a final saka against Bahadur Shah’s forces. This was the second of Chittor’s three historic Jauhars.

Udai Singh II (1540–1572)

• In 1540, he was crowned in Kumbhalgarh by the nobles of Mewar.
• Maharana Pratap born in same year (9th May-1540)
• In 1562, he gave refuge to Baz Bahadur of Malwa. Using this as a pretext, Akbar attacked Mewar in October 1563.
• Udai Singh retired to Gogunda.
• Rao Jaimal & Patta – fought with Valor – even Akbar impressed – statue erected at Fatehpur Sikri
• Jauhar- 3^rd Jauhar of chittor (1567)
  • Kesariya – In the leadership of Jaimal-Fatta
  • Jauhar – In leadership of Rani Fool Kanwar
  • Between 1556-66, Mughal focus on Marwar allowed Rana Udai Singh II of Mewar to consolidate power. In 1562, Jaimal was ousted from Merta by Akbar and took refuge in Mewar, receiving the jagir of Bednore. Baz Bahadur, defeated by Akbar, also sought refuge in Mewar, angering the emperor. Akbar besieged Chittor Fort, forcing Udai Singh to flee, leaving Jaimal in charge. After a 58-day siege, the Rajputs performed Kesariya and fought valiantly but were ultimately massacred by the Mughal army.
• Founded city of Udaipur. This became the capital of Mewar from here on.

Maharana Pratap (9th May 1540- 29 Jan 1597)

Battle of Haldighati – 1576

• The Battle of Haldighati was a battle fought on 18 June 1576 between Maharana Pratap and the Mughal emperor Akbar’s forces. While technically the mughals won the battle but it was a futile one as they failed to capture Pratap, who continued the war and was able to take back most of the lost areas. Colonel Tod compared it to the famous Battle of Thermopylae of Greece and called it ‘Thermopylae of Mewar‘.
  • Background – After losing Chittor in the 1567 siege, Udai Singh retreated to the forests of Rajpipili. Following his death in 1572, Rana Pratap became the ruler of Mewar after a brief succession conflict. Akbar sent multiple envoys, including Jalal Khan Qurchi, Man Singh, Raja Bhagwant Das, and Todarmal, urging Pratap to accept Mughal suzerainty. When diplomacy failed, war became inevitable.
  • Battle – Akbar assigned Raja Man Singh to lead the Mughal forces, who established their base at Mandalgarh. On June 18, 1576, the battle began near Haldighati, 23 km north of Gogunda. Rana Pratap’s army, supported by Hakim Khan Sur, Bhim Singh Dodia, Ramdas Rathore (son of Jaimal), and Bida Mana of the Jhala clan, faced the larger Mughal force. Despite their bravery, Pratap’s forces were defeated. Pratap escaped to Koliyari, a hilly town west of Gogunda, and continued his resistance.
  • Consequences – The Mughals captured Gogunda, Kumbhalgarh, and Udaipur, but Rana Pratap remained at large in the Aravalli hills,determined to fight for independence. By 1579, with the Mughal focus elsewhere, Pratap regained much of his western territories. However, Chittor stayed under Mughal control.
  • Campaigns of Shahbaz Khan – After Haldighati, Akbar sent Shahbaz Khan thrice (1577-79 CE) to capture Maharana Pratap. Despite taking Kumbhalgarh, he failed. In 1580 CE, Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khana also tried but was unsuccessful.

Battle of Dewair – 1582

• In 1582, during Dashehra (Vijayadashami), Maharana Pratap launched an attack on Dewair, resulting in a significant victory for Mewar.
• Background – After the Battle of Haldighati, Maharana Pratap was left with only 7,000 soldiers. He adopted a New war policy, preventing Mughal forces from settling in Mewar.
• Akbar dispatched six massive military campaigns to capture Pratap, but all failed.

• Battle – The Mewar army was divided into two groups: one led by Maharana Pratap and the other by Kunwar Amar Singh. In the decisive battle, the Mughals were defeated, and their soldiers fled. About 36,000 Mughal soldiers surrendered. The victory led to the closure of all 36 Mughal posts in Mewar. Col. Tod compared Maharana Pratap’s battles from Haldighati to Dewair to the legendary Greek battles, calling Haldighati “Mewar’s Thermopylae” and Dewair “Mewar’s Marathon,” praising Pratap’s heroism and determination.
• Consequences – Maharana Pratap achieved a decisive victory, permanently ending Mughal influence in most of Mewar. He recovered nearly all of Mewar except Chittor, Ajmer, and Mandalgarh. Chawand became the new capital of Mewar, fostering the development of art and culture.

Maharana Pratap: A Multi-Dimensional Legacy

Maharana Pratap, revered as Mewar Kesari and Hindu Suraj, remains one of the most iconic figures in Indian history. He was a ruler who prioritized the welfare and pride of his people above all else. Known for his indomitable courage and resilience, Maharana Pratap was not only an exemplary warrior but also a patron of art, culture, and architecture. His contributions to these fields are as follows:

Military Skills :

• Maharana Pratap’s military genius was evident in his guerrilla warfare tactics, fortifications, and defense strategies. Despite his army being smaller and less equipped than Akbar’s, Pratap utilized the terrain of the Aravalli hills effectively, maintaining Mewar’s independence for years. His unparalleled courage and exceptional leadership skills earned him the title of the ‘Leonidas of Rajasthan’ from Colonel Todd.

Literature and Intellectual Contributions :

• His court was adorned with prominent scholars like Pandit Chakrapani Mishra (authored 4 major works: Vishvavallabh, Muhurta Mala, Vyavaharadarsha, and Rajyabhisheka Paddhati), Jain Muni Hemratan Suri (​​Gora Badal Padmini Charitra Chaupai, Mahipal Chaupa) and ​​Charan poet Dursa Adha composed Viruddh Chihatri. The poets like Mala Sandu and Rama Sandu played a significant role in uplifting the morale of soldiers

Architectural developments :

• the construction of temples and fortifications. The Harihar Temple at Badaranna and Chawand’s Chawanda Devi Temple reflect his dedication to religious architecture. After defeating Loon Rathore in 1585, Pratap established Chawand as his new capital, which followed the Ekashitipada Vastu principles of town planning (open courtyards at the center of settlements).

Art and Cultural development :

• Maharana Pratap’s reign was marked by cultural resilience and creative patronage. initiated the Chawand Style of Painting, commissioning Nisaruddin, a renowned painter, to create six raga and thirty-six ragini paintings. 

Amar Singh I (1597-1620)

• After the demise of Maharana Pratap, Akbar and Jahangir got another chance to fulfil his ambition and attacked Udaipur in 1599, 1605 AD and 1613 AD (five times) respectively. Maharana Amar Singh defeated Jahangir’s army in the battle of Untala. 

Second Battle of Dewair – 1606

In 1606, Rana Amar Singh defeated and killed Sultan Khan, the Mughal prince Muhammad Parviz fled from the battlefield with his commander Asaf Khan.

• Battle – Jehangir sent Prince Parviz and Asaf Khan, with an army of 80,000 horses. The Mughal forces were commanded by Sultan Khan. Amar Singh fought bravely and killed the imperial commander Sultan Khan. The imperial army was disgracefully beaten and fled towards Ajmer.
• Consequences – Jahangir persisted despite the Mughal defeat at Dewair. In 1608, he sent Mahabat Khan with another army. While the Mughals claimed victory, they failed to alter the ground reality significantly. After Maharana Pratap’s death, Amar Singh fought 17 major battles. Jahangir later dispatched an even larger force under Prince Khurram (Shah Jahan). Despite their valiant efforts, Amar Singh and his son Karan Singh could not match the overwhelming Mughal strength, resulting in significant loss of life and property in Mewar. Finally, in 1615, Amar Singh signed a treaty with Shah Jahan, who acted on Jahangir’s behalf.

Raj Singh I (1652–1680) 

• During the accession crisis in the Mughal Empire, Prince Aurangzeb had scored decisive victories against Prince Dara Shikoh. 
• Maharana Raj Singh shrewdly refrained from responding to Dara’s call for assistance, and wisely kept on strengthening his own kingdom. Maharana Raj Singh’s neutrality in the war succession resulted in vast territorial gains for Mewar.
• When Aurangzeb became the emperor, his anti – Hindu policies grew so harsh that Maharana could not resist opposing him. He also continued to breach the treaty with Mughals by repairing the fort Chittorgarh like his father.
• In 1660 CE, Kishangarh’s princess’ Charumati incident outraged Aurangzeb. In 1669 CE, orthodox Aurangzeb gave the order to destroy Hindu temples and educational institutions and re-imposed Jaziya, Maharana opposed it openly. However, when Maharana gave refuge to Maharaja Ajit Singh of Jodhpur, Aurangzeb finally attacked Mewar in 1679 CE.

Raj Singh: A Benevolent Ruler :

Raj Singh earned the title Vijay Katkatu to promote military and moral virtues among his subjects. His reign reflected a deep commitment to welfare and cultural advancements.

Architectural Contributions :

His wife, Ramarasde, built the Jaya Bawdi (Trimukhi stepwell) in Udaipur. To address drought issues, Raja Singh constructed Rajsamand Lake by damming the Gomti River. At its northern bank, Raj Prashasti was installed. carved on 25 black marble slabs, documents Mewar’s history, including the Mughal-Mewar treaty of 1615 and the rulers’ technical skills. Due to his irrigation related works, he is called as Hydraulic Ruler of rajasthan

Religious Preservation :

• In 1669-70, Raj Singh rescued idols of Shrinathji and Dwarkadhish from Mathura, which were under threat from Aurangzeb’s oppression. He established Shrinathji at Sihad (modern Nathdwara) and Dwarkadhish at Kankroli (Rajsamand). He revived the Ambika Mata Temple in Udaipur. He also opposed Jaziya tax imposed by Aurangzeb on hindus.

Urban Development :

• Raj Singh founded the town of Rajnagar near Rajsamand Lake and constructed structures like Sarvaritu Vilas and Janasagar.

Literary development :

• He patronized all sanskrit, hindi and Rajasthani scholars, prominent among them are Ranchood Bhatt, sadashiv.
• His reign combined a focus on social welfare, infrastructure, and religious preservation, leaving an enduring legacy in Mewar’s history.

Amar Singh II (1698–1710)

• Maharana Amar Singh II supported Prince Muazzam during the Mughal succession crisis and maintained cordial relations with him after his accession as Emperor Bahadur Shah I.
• Maharana assisted Maharaja Jai Singh II of Jaipur and Maharaja Ajit Singh of Jodhpur in reclaiming their states, countering Mughal strategies to keep them away from their territory.
• The Mewar army, under Sanwaldas’s command, was dispatched by the Maharana to aid Jaipur and Jodhpur in their struggle against Mughal authority.

Maharana Jahgat Singh 

• An important Event of his reign was the Hurda Conference.

Maharana Bheem Singh (1778 – 1828 CE)

• During his reign, the political and social condition of Mewar had deteriorated, the most shameful outcome of which was the Krishna Kumari dispute.

• Battle of Gingoli (1807) – The battle of Gingoli (Parbatsar) was fought between Jagat Singh II of Jaipur & Maan Singh of Jodhpur. The reason behind the battle was marriage to Mewar princess Krishnakumari. Jagat Singh II won the battle.
• Treaty with East India Company (1818) – In 1818, Maharana Bhim Singh signed a subsidiary alliance with the East India Company, placing Mewar under indirect foreign control.

Maharana Swaroop Singh (1842-1861 CE)

• He was Mewar Maharana during the Revolt 1857.
• Introduced new ‘Swaroop Shahi’ coins to counter trade disruptions caused by counterfeit currency. 
• He Reconstructed the Vijay Stambh after it was damaged by lightning during his reign.
• Social Reform Works 
  • Banned female infanticide in 1844.
  • Abolished the Dakan (witch-hunting) practice in 1853, though it was completely eradicated during Maharana Shambhu Singh’s rule.
  • On 15th August 1861, the Sati system was prohibited through an official decree.
  • Put a stop to the Samadhi ritual, ensuring protection of human lives from such extreme practices.

Shambhu Singh (1861–1874 CE) 

• Adopted son of Maharana Swaroop Singh
• He was the first to set up a school for girls and thus promoted opportunities of education for everyone.
• He enforced special measures to curb the Sati pratha

Sajjan Singh (1874–1884 CE)

Maharaja Sajjan Singh, son of the Maharaj Shakti Singh of Bagore, was adopted by Maharana Shambhu Singh. He was a visionary ruler committed to the welfare of his people and the advancement of his kingdom. His reign saw significant contributions across various fields:

• Administrative Reforms : He fought corruption by creating the Shailkantar Sambandhini Sabha, which he personally led, and introduced a budget system for Parganas. He decentralized governance by establishing the Mahendraraj Sabha for judicial and revenue matters and the Mewar Police to curb local crimes. Additionally, he conducted Mewar’s first census, enhancing administrative planning.
• Social Welfare :
  • Improved roads, installed lights, planted trees, and set up a sanitary department.
  • Enforced city planning laws to prevent encroachment.
  • Built Sajjan Niwas Bagh (Gulab Bagh) with Udaipur’s first zoo.
  • Established a Waterworks Department, repaired lakes, built canals from Udaisagar and Rajsamand for agriculture.
  • Connected Udaipur with nearby towns and planned the Chittor-Udaipur railway, completed by Maharana Fateh Singh.
  • Founded Sajjan Hospital and Walter Janana Hospital for public healthcare.
  • Established social institutions like a Gaushala, orphanage, and mental asylum.
• Land Reforms : He implemented a land revenue settlement system with accurate measurements and allocation, appointing Mr. Winget to oversee the process.
• Educational and Literary Work : He promoted education by opening nine state schools and allocating part of the land revenue for education. Inspired by his teacher, Jani Bihari Lal, he established Mewar’s first History Department, led by Kaviraj Shyamaldas. 
• Literary Work : His court supported intellectuals and poets like Ujal Fatehkaran and Barhath Kishan Singh. He founded the Sajjan Yantralaya printing press, publishing the Sajjan Kirti Sudharak magazine, and built the Sajjan Vani Vilas Library to preserve knowledge and culture.

Fateh Singh (1884–1930 CE)

• Lord Curzon, the then Viceroy of India, organized a grand royal court in Delhi on 1 January 1903 on the occasion of the coronation of Emperor Edward VII in London.
• Maharana Fateh Singh of Mewar also had to go to Delhi to attend the Viceroy’s court on this occasion.
• This was not acceptable to the famous revolutionary Kesari Singh Barhat. On this occasion, he wrote 13 Sorathas in the Dingal language and sent them to Maharana. These Sorathas became famous by the name ‘Chetavani Ra Chungtiye’. After reading Barhat’s Sorathas, Maharana did not attend the court even after reaching Delhi.
• Welfare works : 
  • In 1889 CE, Walter Krit Rajput Hitkarini Sabha was established for social reforms in the Rajput community.
  • The work of land revenue settlement initiated by Maharana Sajjan Singh was completed in the reign of Maharana Fateh Singh. Roads and irrigation works became better and telegraph services were started in the State.
  • He established Mewar Risala, later converted into Mewar Lancers during the 1st World War between 1914 to 1918.
  • In 1889, Maharana built the “Connaught Dam” on Lake Dewali and enlarged the lake and it was later renamed as Lake Fateh Sagar.

Bhupal Singh (1930–1947 CE)

• The events that took place during the time of Maharana Bhupal Singh included Bijolia farmers’ movement, Mewar Prajamandal movement and unification of Rajasthan. He merged his state into the Union of Rajasthan on 18th April 1948.
• Works :
  • He took great interest in the field of education and established the Rana Pratap Hindi University at Chittorgarh; an Agriculture College, and Maharana Bhupal Noble’s School and College, apart from patronizing the establishment of Vidhya Bhawan at Udaipur.
  • During his reign, Irrigation facilities were extended, Bhupal Sagar Dam was constructed, Sugarcane cultivation was encouraged, a sugar mill was opened near Chittorgarh and A special mining department was set up.
  • As an environmentalist, he organized long term afforestation programs for the Aravalis.

Kachwaha Dynasty

T.H. Hendley states that the Kachwaha clan is believed to have settled in an early era at Rohtas(Rahatas) on the Son River in present-day Bihar. He notes that their notable seats of power were in present day Madhya Pradesh including Kutwar, Gwalior, Dubkhund, Simhapaniya and Narwar (Nalapura). This second westward migration to Madhya Pradesh is said to have been initiated under Raja Nala, the legendary founder of Narwar.

According to Rudolf Hoernle (1905), the Kachhwahas are related to the Gurjara-Pratiharas. He identifies similarities between the names of the line of rulers of Kannauj (mid-10th century) with the recorded line of eight Kachwaha rulers of Gwalior (based on the Sas-Bahu inscription of Mahipal).

Historians state that the Kacchapaghatas, like the Chandellas and Paramaras, originated as tributaries of the preceding powers of the region. They point out that it was only following the downfall, during the 8th–10th centuries AD, of Kannauj (regional seat of power following the breakup of Harsha’s empire), that the Kacchapaghata state emerged as a principal power in the Chambal valley of present day Madhya Pradesh. Archaeological artifacts largely support this view: Kacchapaghata coinage (minted Gupta-fashion) discovered in Madhya Pradesh and Gopaksetra inscriptions.

Kachwaha Rulers of Dausa

During the Medieval period, The Chauhans & Badgurjars ruled this land in 10th Century A.D. The city of Dausa rose to fame when it became the first capital of Dhundhar. This was in 1006, when the Kacchawaha Rajput king Dulha Rai annexed the region from the Gurjara-Pratiharas and the Menaj’s control. The foundation that Dulha Rai laid in Dausa resulted in the Kingdom of Amber and later, Jaipur by the same dynasty.

Dhola Rai, Raja of Dausa (1006-1036)

• In 1006, Dhola Rai married the daughter of Raja Ralhan Singh Chauhan (king of Ajmer) and got the region of Dhundhar as Part of dowry.
• Raja Dhola Rai expelled the Badd Gujjar Rajputs from Dhundhar and made alliances with the Meenas (tribal people) by promising the continuance of their tribal customs, granting them jagirs, and appointing them as kiladars (fort wardens).

Raja Kakil Dev (1036 to 1038)

• Kakil Dev defeated the Meenas of Amer, annexed Khoh, Jhotwara, and Gaitor into his kingdom, and made it his capital. 
• He also conquered Med and Bairath from the Yadavas.
• Amer remained the Kachwaha capital until Jaipur’s establishment.
• The Kachhwahas initially remained under the political influence of the Chauhans and later of the Guhil’s. Their prominence in Rajasthan grew significantly after they established alliances with the Mughal empire.

Kachwaha Rulers of Amber (1036 -1727)

Prithviraj of Amber (1503-1527)

• During the reign of Prithviraj, Maharana Sanga of Mewar attacked Amer and made it a subordinate state of Mewar. Prithviraj fought alongside Sanga in the Battle of Khanwa. He was a devotee of Krishna Das Payahari, a saint of the Ramanuja sect from Galta.
• According to Tod’s Rajasthan, the state witnessed internal unrest during the period between Malaesiji and Prithviraj. Prithviraj restored order and divided his kingdom into 12 parts, assigning each to one of his 12 sons, which became known as the ’12 Kotris.’

Raja Bharmal (1548 – 1574)

• Bharmal was the first Rajput king to accept Mughal suzerainty and establish a matrimonial alliance by marrying his daughter, Harkha Bai, to Emperor Akbar. 
• Harkha Bai, also known as Jodha Bai and Mariam-uz-Zamani, was the mother of Prince Salim (later Emperor Jahangir).
• Bhagwant Das, the next king of Amer, also strengthened ties with the Mughals by marrying his daughter, Man Bai, to Prince Salim (later Emperor Jahangir). Their son was Prince Khusrau.

Mirza Raja Man Singh I (1589 – 1614)

• He is one of the prominent rulers of Amer, is remembered for his exceptional contributions in warfare, administration, literature, architecture, and religious harmony. His reign, spanning 75 years, saw 55 years of active warfare, and he served under the Mughal emperors Akbar and Jahangir. For academic understanding, his reign can be divided into three distinct phases:
• Early Period (1562-1574 CE) : 
  • Raja Man Singh first proved his military capabilities during Akbar’s Ranthambore campaign, successfully subjugating Surjan Hada, the ruler of Ranthambore, and making him a Mughal subordinate.
  • He led imperial forces in the Battle of Saarnal and annexed Dungarpur into the Mughal Empire.
• Mid Period (1574-1589 CE)  : 
  • Akbar appointed Man Singh as the commander of the imperial army during the famous Battle of Haldighati against Maharana Pratap.
  • He later subdued Mirza Hakim in Kabul, after which Akbar made him the Subedar (Governor) of Kabul.
  • Akbar also entrusted him with the governorship of Bihar, granting him a mansab (rank) of 5000, along with the jagir of Mandsaur.
• Later Period (1589-1614 CE)  : 
  • Raja Man Singh quelled rebellions in Odisha and established peace in the region. Subsequently, he was made the Subedar of Bengal, efficiently managing Kabul, Bengal, and Bihar during his tenure.
  • Akbar elevated his mansab to 7000, recognizing his loyalty and administrative capabilities. However, his relations with Jahangir were not as amicable.

Cultural Contributions

• Literature Development : He was not only skilled in war and strategy but also had interest in learning sanskrit. His court was a hub of literary brilliance, showcasing works such as
  • Mancharitra Raso by Narottam
  • Man Singh Kirti Muktavali by Jagannath
  • Maan Prakash and Mancharitra by Muraridas
  • Rag Manjari and Rag Mala by Pundrik Vittal

• Architectural Legacy : His architectural endeavors reflect a unique blend of Rajput and Mughal styles. The Royal Palace of Amer features notable examples of Mughal-inspired architecture, such as Diwan-e-Aam and Diwan-e-Khaas. His Temples architecture showcases a blend of Hindu, Jain, and Mughal styles i.e. Jagat Shiromani Temple, Shila Devi Temple etc.
• Religious Views : Raja Man Singh, a devout Hindu, respected all religions equally.although he declined membership in Akbar’s Din-i-Ilahi and refused to convert to Islam despite requests from Munger’s saint Shah Daulat, , he showed equal respect for mosques as he did for temples. His cenotaph in Amer cremation ground symbolizes universal brotherhood, featuring depictions of Hindu deities alongside Buddha and Mahavira.

Evaluation of personality :

• Raja Man Singh’s personality was a harmonious blend of bravery, diplomacy, cultural sophistication, and religious tolerance. As a courageous warrior, he played a pivotal role in expanding the Mughal Empire, leading successful campaigns in regions like Kabul, Bengal, Odisha, and against notable adversaries such as Maharana Pratap in the Battle of Haldighati. His military accomplishments earned him Akbar’s trust and prestigious titles like Farzand (son) and Mirza Raja, highlighting his loyalty and strategic brilliance. Beyond the battlefield, Man Singh displayed exceptional administrative skills, fostering peace and stability in the territories he governed, including Kabul and Bengal. His inclusive approach to governance, marked by respect for all communities, reflected his deep commitment to unity. While he declined to embrace Akbar’s Din-i-Ilahi, he upheld secular values by showing equal reverence for Hindu temples and Muslim mosques, such as building the Govind Dev Ji Temple in Vrindavan and supporting local religious structures. Man Singh’s contribution to architecture and culture further underscores his visionary personality. His patronage led to the creation of masterpieces like the Amer Fort, where elements such as Diwan-e-Aam and Diwan-e-Khaas reflect the elegant fusion of Mughal and Rajput styles. His interest in art and literature attracted scholars and artists to his court, contributing to a vibrant cultural atmosphere.

• Conclusively, he was not just a warrior but a statesman who understood the importance of alliances, cultural integration, and governance

Mirza Raja Jai Singh I (1621 – 1667)

• Raja Jai Singh I (commonly referred to as Mirza Raja Jai Singh) served three Mughal emperors: Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb, earning their trust through his military and administrative acumen. His role in negotiating the Treaty of Purandar with Shivaji demonstrates his diplomatic skills.
• Art and Cultural Development : Jai Singh had a profound love for architecture, evident in the construction of Amer Fort, Jaigarh fort and Jaisinghpura in Aurangabad and other structures that remain excellent examples of post-Mughal Rajput architecture. A patron of arts and literature, Jai Singh valued multilingual scholarship. His court was graced by eminent personalities like Bihari Lal, the celebrated Hindi poet who authored Bihari Satsai, Kulapati Mishra, who wrote 52 books, and Ram Kavi, who composed Jai Singh Charitra. During his tenure in the Deccan, he implemented significant reforms in land settlement and revenue administration, leaving a lasting impact on governance in the region. 
• Jai Singh’s legacy reflects his intellectual depth, cultural patronage, and ability to balance martial and administrative responsibility

Kachwaha Rulers of Jaipur (1727- 1947)

Mirza Raja Sawai Jai Singh II (1699 – 1743)

• Sawai Jai Singh II was honored with the title ‘Sawai’ by Aurangzeb for his remarkable intelligence and eloquence.
• During the Mughal succession war of 1707, he supported Prince Azam, but after Bahadur Shah I’s victory, Jai Singh was deposed, and his brother Vijay Singh was made the ruler of Amber.
• The region was renamed Islamabad, later changed to Mominabad. However, Jai Singh skillfully reclaimed Amber through the pressure exerted by the Debari Pact(1708) with Mewar’s Maharana.
• The Mughal emperors frequently appointed Jai Singh as the Subedar of Malwa to curb Maratha influence and prevent their advance into Rajputana.

Political Campaigns: 

• Intervention in Bharatpur Succession (1722) – supported Badan Singh against Raja Mohkam Singh, ultimately installing Badan Singh as the ruler of Bharatpur.
• Relations with Bundi – He declared Dalel Singh, the adopted son of Budh Singh Hada, as the successor instead of Ummed Singh. This period also witnessed Maratha interference in Bundi’s politics.
• Relations with the Marathas:

• 1715: Participated in the Battle of Peelsud.
• 1733: Battle of Mandsaur.
• 1735: Battle of Rampura.
• Hurda Conference in Bhilwara, aiming to unite Rajput chiefs against the Marathas.
• 1741: Signed the Dholpur Agreement with Peshwa Balaji Bajirao, showcasing his efforts to manage the growing Maratha influence in Rajputana.

Social Reforms of Sawai Jai Singh

• Abolition of Sati Pratha: Jai Singh worked to end the regressive widow-burning practice, becoming the first Rajput ruler to challenge it.
• Support for Widow Remarriage: He legalized widow remarriage and tried to implement it, offering dignity and a second chance at life to widows.
• Inter-Caste Marriages: Promoted inter-caste marriages to reduce societal divisions and encourage unity.
• Public Welfare Initiatives: Established wells, dharamshalas, orphanages, and sadavratas for public benefit.
• Regulation of Religious Orders: Prohibited ascetics from hoarding wealth, keeping weapons, or women, and encouraged them towards a disciplined life.
• Reduction in Brahmin Divisions: United six Brahmin ( छन्यात ) sub-castes by encouraging them to dine together, promoting harmony.
• Women’s Welfare: Implemented financial aid for widows, ensuring better support for their livelihood.

Religious Reforms 

• Abolition of Jizya and Pilgrimage Taxes: Persuaded Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah to abolish Jizya (1720) and pilgrimage taxes in Gaya (1728) and Allahabad (1733), benefiting Hindus significantly.
• Preservation of Hindu Traditions: Revived ancient rituals like Rajasuya Yajna, Vajapeya Yajna, and Ashvamedha Yajna, keeping Indian traditions alive.
• Religious Harmony: Advocated for tolerance among different communities by abolishing discriminatory practices, fostering unity among religions.
• Promotion of Sanskrit: Encouraged Sanskrit learning and supported scholars to propagate religious and cultural knowledge.

Architectural Contributions

• Planned City: Jai Singh founded Jaipur (1727) with meticulous city planning by architect Vidyadhar Bhattacharya, inspired by the Shilpa Shastra. The city was divided into nine blocks (chowkis) with sectors assigned for different professions. Jaipur was included in UNESCO’s Cultural Heritage list in 2020.
• Fortifications and Palaces: Built Jaigarh Fort, Nahargarh Fort, and City Palace (Chandra Mahal being the most magnificent section). These architectures are a blend of Mugal and Rajput style of architecture.
• Water Architecture: Initiated the construction of Jal Mahal, later completed by Pratap Singh.
• Religious Architecture: Built Govind Dev Ji Temple, temples in Mathura and Govardhan, and Kalki Temple in Sirh Deori Bazaar.

Art and Literature developments 

• He established the ‘Suratkhana’ painting department, promoting artistic excellence and generating employment for artisans.
• A scholar himself, he composed the “Jai Singh Karika” in 1701 and supported advancements in astrology and astronomy by building observatories in Jaipur.
• He also commissioned a statue of Lord Kalki in Jaipur, reflecting his religious and cultural vision.
• His court was adorned with eminent scholars such as Pundarik Ratnakar, Pandit Jagannath, Kevalram, Nayan Chandra Mukherjee, and Muhammad Mehri.

The planned city: Jaipur

• Founder: Jaipur was founded by Sawai Jai Singh II on 18 November 1727.
• Ancient Name: The city was initially called Jaynagar.
• Architect: Designed by Vidyadhar Bhattacharya, a Bengali Brahmin architect.
• Design Structure: Built on the Chopad Pattern with 9 squares (Chowkris) and 7 gates.
• Inspiration: Modeled after Canton (China) and Baghdad (Iraq).
• Astrological Consultation: Portuguese astrologer Xavier de Silva assisted in its planning.
• Foundation Ceremony: The foundation was laid by Jagannath Samrat at Ganga Pol.
• Modern Planning: Jaipur is India’s first planned city, structured with meticulous urban planning principles.

Sawai Jai Singh and Astronomy

Sawai Jai Singh had a deep interest in mathematics and astronomy from an early age. Jagannath samrat was his teacher of astronomy. To refine his knowledge, he sent his scholars to study the astronomical systems of Europe and Islamic countries and invited foreign experts to his court. He closely analyzed the discrepancies between the positions of celestial bodies as recorded in traditional Arabic and Sanskrit almanacs and their actual positions in the sky.

Challenges : Jai Singh discovered that brass instruments commonly used for astronomical observations had significant limitations like Inaccuracy in Measurements, Wear and Tear. To overcome these challenges, Jai Singh pioneered the use of stone and lime instruments, which were larger, more stable, and provided more accurate readings. The first observatory, now known as Jantar Mantar, was built in Delhi. Instruments like the Samrat Yantra, Jai Prakash Yantra, and Rama Yantra were constructed to improve accuracy in astronomical calculations. Observatories were also established in Jaipur, Ujjain, Mathura, and Varanasi to cross-verify the data.

Jaipur Observatory : 

• Built in 1728, This is the largest and most significant among Jai Singh’s observatories.
• It houses 10 instruments made of stone and lime and 4 metal instruments. The Samrat Yantra, or World’s Largest Sundial, is the centerpiece, capable of measuring time with incredible precision. In July 2010, UNESCO added the Jaipur Observatory to its list of World Heritage Sites.

Evaluation of personality of Sawai Jaisingh

Sawai Jai Singh II was a visionary and pragmatic ruler celebrated for his intelligence, diplomacy, and significant contributions to art, science, and welfare. Awarded the title “Sawai” by Aurangzeb for his eloquence, he founded Jaipur in 1727, India’s first planned city based on Vedic principles. Politically astute, he intervened in regional conflicts like Bharatpur’s succession (1722) and Bundi’s political crisis (1730), showcasing his leadership. Initially opposing the Marathas militarily, he later forged alliances, such as the 1732 pact with Mewar, adopting a diplomatic approach for regional stability. A patron of arts and culture, he established the Suratkhana painting department, beautified his court with scholars, and promoted architectural and artistic excellence. He also undertook welfare initiatives, ensuring public prosperity. A scholar and astronomer, Jai Singh established observatories in Jaipur, Delhi, and other cities, reflecting his scientific vision. His adaptability and contributions to Rajasthan’s political, cultural, and scientific heritage define him as a remarkable ruler with a progressive legacy.

Sawai Ishwari Singh (1743 – 1750)

• The marriage of Mewar princess Chandrakumari to Jai Singh was agreed upon with the condition that her son would be the future ruler of Amber. Madho Singh was the son of Chandrakumari.
• After Jai Singh’s death, his eldest son, Ishwari Singh, became the ruler. However, due to the aforementioned condition, Madho Singh considered himself the rightful ruler of Amber, leading to a conflict between the two over the throne. Ishwari Singh was the son of Jai Singh II’s Marwari queen, Suraj Kunwari.
• Battle of Rajmahal (1747), Tonk :
  • Fought on the banks of the Banas River, Madho Singh lost the battle. Ishwar singh Built Isarlaat/Sargasuli (an octagonal structure with 7 stories)
• Battle of Bagru (1748)
  • Madho Singh emerged victorious.
  • Ishwar Singh promised to pay 20 lakh rupees and 3 jagirs to Madho Singh and 2 jagirs to Maratha Malhar Rao Holkar.
• In 1750 CE, Ishwar Singh under pressure from Maratha forces, committed suicide along with his two wives, jumping from the Isarlaad/Sargasuli tower.

Sawai Madho Singh I (1750 – 1768)

• Was rewarded the fort of Ranthambore by the Mughal Emperor
• Founder of City Sawai Madhopur in 1765.
• Got Shaikh Sadi’s book Gulistan translated to Sanskrit.
• Freed the Kachhawaha Kingdom from the Maratha
• Battle of Kankod (1759) :- Mughal emperor Ahmed Shah gave Ranthambore to Madho Singh in 1754, but the Marathas also wanted to capture Ranthambore. As a result, the battle of Kankod (Tonk) was fought between Malhar Rao Holkar’s army and Madho Singh in 1759, in which the Maratha army was defeated.
• Battle of Bhatwara (1761) :- Madho Singh started attacking the old area under Ranthambore. Angered by this, Shatrusal of Kota sent Jhala Jalim Singh. Jalim Singh defeated Madhav Singh’s army in the battle of Bhatwara on 2 December 1761.
• The feudal lord of Machedi broke away from the Kachwaha dynasty of Jaipur and established an independent Kachwaha dynasty in Alwar.

Sawai Pratap Singh (1778 -1803)

• Battle of Tunga (28 July 1787)
  • Fought between Mahadji Scindia and Maharaja Pratap Singh, where Scindia was defeated. Upon retreating, Scindia famously declared, “If I survive, I will turn Jaipur into dust.“
• Battle of Patan (June 1790)
  • The combined forces of Jaipur’s Maharaja Pratap Singh and Jodhpur’s Maharaja Vijay Singh fought against the Marathas. Despite the alliance, Pratap Singh was defeated.
• Battle of Malpura (1800)
  • In this conflict, the Marathas, under the leadership of Daulat Rao Scindia, defeated the combined armies of Jaipur’s Maharaja Pratap Singh and Jodhpur’s Maharaja Bhim Singh.

Art and cultural development : 

• Poetry and Literature
  • Maharaja Pratap Singh, a poet under the name Brajnidhi, composed works like Preetilata, Sneh Sangram, Fagarang, Prem Prakash, and Rang Chaupada. His poems, compiled in Brajnidhi Granthavali, were written in Dhundhari and Braj languages, reflecting his literary excellence and cultural contributions.
• Music and Musical Conferences
  • Pratap Singh was a patron of music and his guru, Ustad Chand Khan, authored Swar Sagar. He organized grand music conferences in Jaipur, chaired by Dev Rishi Brijpal Bhatt, and a collaborative work, Radha Govind Sangeet Saar, was produced. His reign elevated Jaipur as a center of musical arts.
• Folk Theater
  • The Tamasha folk theater gained prominence during his reign. Pratap Singh invited Banshidhar Bhatt from Maharashtra to Jaipur, promoting this vibrant art form and enriching Rajasthan’s cultural landscape.
• Painting and Art
  • Pratap Singh’s reign was the golden age of Jaipur painting. His established painting school produced masterpieces on themes like Rag-Ragini, Durga Saptashati, Ramayana, Radha-Krishna Leelas, and Barahmasa. Lalachand, a court artist, was renowned for depicting animal battle scenes.
• Architecture
  • Style – incredible blend of Hindu Rajput and Mughal architectural styles.
  • He Built Hawa Mahal, completed the work of Jal Mahal.

Sawai Jai Singh III (1819 -1835)

• Battle of Gingoli (1807 AD)
  • Between Jaipur (Jagat Singh ji) and Jodhpur (Mansingh ji)
  • over Krishna kumari dispute
• Subsidiary alliance 1818 –  to protect the state from Marathas and Pindaris, Jagat Singh II signed a treaty with the East India Company and put the responsibility of the state’s security on the company.

Sawai Ram Singh II (1835 -1880)

• Sawai Ram Singh II’s administration was initially managed by Major John Ludlow, who implemented reforms like banning practices such as sati, slavery, child marriage, and dowry.
• Revolt of 1857 – He Supported the British during the revolt, earning the title Sitar-e-Hind and the jagir of Kotputli.

His Achievements

• Social Reforms
  • Major John Ludlow, under British administration, banned Sati, slavery, child marriage, and dowry practices during Ram Singh’s minority.

Architectural and Cultural Contributions

• Built Albert Hall and Ram Niwas Garden to commemorate visits by Lord Northbrook (1875) and Prince Albert (1876).
• Founded Rajasthan School of Art and Craft (1857) and Ram Prakash Theatre, the first theater in Northern India.
• Painted Jaipur pink in 1868 to honor the visit of the Prince of Wales, giving the city its nickname Pink City.
• Constructed  Ramgarh Dam.
• Educational Developments
  • Established Maharaja College, Maharani College, Sanskrit College, and Maharaja Library (1844).

Sawai Man Singh II (1922 –1947)

• Became the first Rajpramukh of Rajasthan after its formation on 30 March 1949 till 1 November 1956. later elected to Rajya Sabha in 1962 and became India’s ambassador to Spain in 1965.
• Appointed Mirza Ismail as his Prime Minister.
• Established key institutions: Sawai Man Singh Hospital, SMS Medical College, SMS School, SMS Stadium.
• Built Takht-e-Shahi Palace on Moti Dungri in English architectural style for his wife Gayatri Devi, who actively contributed to education.
• Founded City Palace Museum in Jaipur.

Hada of Bundi

In ancient times, the area around Bundi was inhabited by various local tribes, a majority group belonging to Meena. Bundi is said to derive its name from a former Meena tribe chief called Bunda Meena. Bundi was previously called “Bunda-Ka-Nal”, Nal meaning “narrow ways”. Later, the region was acquired by Rao Deva Hada, who took over Bundi from Jaita Meena in 1342, and established a princely state Bundi, renaming the surrounding area called Hadoti, the land of great Hada Rajputs.

Rulers of Bundi

• Rao Deva Hada (1342-43)
  • Laid the foundation of hada state of Bundi after taking possession from Jaita Meena.
• Rao Raja Ratan Singh (1608 to 1632)
  • Akbar & Man Singh I – negotiate treaty with Surjan Singh – hence given title of “Rao Raja”
  • Given the government of Benares.
• Rao Raja Ratan Singh (1608 to 1632)
  • Ratan Singh & his son Madho Singh – fight war against rebels & win during jahangir reign.
  • Jehangir divides Hadoti to Bundi & kota, giving Kota as separate state to madho Singh
  • Shah Jahan confirmed grant of Kota to Madho Singh.
• Rao Raja Chhattar Sal Singh (1632 to 1658)
  • Chhatar Singh is made governor of Delhi by Prince Dara Shikoh (the son of Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan), but he dies fighting against Shah Jahan’s successor, Aurangzeb.
• Rao Raja Bhao Singh (1658 to1682)
  • Fights Aurangzeb and wins against Raja Atmaram. Aurangzeb impressed and reconciled with Raja Bhao making him governor of Aurangabad.
• Rao Raja Budh Singh (1696 to 1735)
  • On Aurangzeb death Budh Singh ji supports Bahadoor Shah Alam, whereas Ram Singh of Kota sides with Prince Azim  Hence, rivalry between Bundi & Kota develops

Jat Rulers of Bharatpur

At the end of the 17th century, Jat Baija with his son Rajaram, Zamindar of the village of Sinsini, took advantage of the weakness of the Mughal Empire to enlarge his territory. Lord Ram’s brother Laxman is the family/clan deity of the erstwhile royal family of Bharatpur. The name ‘Laxman’ was engraved on the arms, seals and other emblems of the state.

Churaman (1695–1721)

• The Jat power in Bharatpur strengthened in the 18th century under the leadership of Badan Singh and Churaman.
• Around 1707, Churaman built the fort of Thoon and established his kingdom.
• Farukhsiyar titled Churaman as Rao Bahadur.
• However, the Mughals got Jat Churaman killed in 1721.

Badan Singh, 1722–1756

Maharaja Suraj Mal (1756–1767)

• Maharaja Surajmal was a brilliant military strategist and an indomitable ruler of Bharatpur
• He played a decisive role in securing Ishwari Singh’s position on the Jaipur throne.
• Victory at Kumbher (1754): Successfully repelled the attack by Maratha leader Holkar
• Stand against Abdali : Surajmal thwarted Najeeb-ud-Daula’s plans to make India a Muslim nation under Abdali’s influence. His refusal to surrender Maratha families who sought refuge in his kingdom demonstrated his courage and adherence to principles.
• Capture of Agra Fort (1761): On June 12, 1761, he captured the Agra Fort.
• Surajmal’s wisdom, political acumen, and administrative skills earned him the title of “Jat Jati ka Plato” (Aflatoon of the Jats).
• Bundi court poet Surya Mall, has written about the bravery of Suraj Mal in Hindi poetry-

“नहीं जाटनी ने सही व्यर्थ प्रसव की पीर
जन्मा उसके गर्भ से सूरजमल सा वीर”

• The magnificent water palaces in Deeg, constructed under his reign, showcase exemplary craftsmanship.

• These palaces are renowned for their expansive courtyards, intricate Mughal-style gardens, and fountains, blending Mughal and Rajput architectural styles beautifully.
• Constructed the Lohagarh fort.
  • Built in 1733 CE in Bharatpur, this fort remained unconquered throughout its history.
  • Its defense was reinforced by a 100-foot wide and 60-foot deep moat, along with a dual-layered wall combining masonry and mud construction.

Maharaja Jawahar Singh (1767–1768)

• The decline of Jat power started during the time of Jawahar Singh.
• He attacked Delhi and brought 8 metal doors from Red Fort of Delhi and placed them at Bharatpur Fort.
• Faced continuous conflicts with Marathas, Rohillas, and Rajputs.

Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1776–1805)

• Signed treaty with the British in 1803 A.D.
• But in 1805, during the time of lord Welselly, Lord Lake attacked Bharatpur as Ranjit Singh had given asylum to Jaswant Rao Holker of Indore.
• Lord Lake could not capture the fort even after four months of siege and has been labelled as Lohgarh. Soon Ranjit Singh was compelled to
• make peace and a new treaty was made on 4 May 1805.

Maharaja Randhir Singh (1805–1823)

• Randhir Singh signed a treaty with the British in 1818 A.D.

Maharaja Brijendra Singh (1929–1947)

• Matsya Union was the first State to be formed in Rajasthan with the integration of Alwar, Bharatpur, Dholpur and Karauli which joined the Indian Union

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