Lessons from lives and teachings of great leaders, reformers and Administrators

Lessons from lives and teachings of great leaders, reformers and Administrators The subject of Ethics draws valuable insights from the lives and teachings of great leaders, reformers, and administrators who shaped society with their vision and values. Figures like Mahavira, Swami Vivekananda, Rabindranath Tagore, Sri Aurobindo, Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Amartya Sen, Dayanand Saraswati, Raja Ram Mohan Roy, and B.R. Ambedkar exemplify ethical leadership, social reform, and moral responsibility that continue to inspire generations.

Previous Year Questions

Year	Question	Marks
2021	What teachings of Buddha are most relevant today and why ?	2M
2021	Teachings of leaders and reformers never grow old. Bring out their significance in the modern context .	10M
2023	State the meaning of the term ‘Purushartha’.	2M
2023	What is meant by ‘Ahimsa Parmo Dharma’ ?	2M
2023	What is meant by “Upaya Kaushalya’ in Buddhism ?	2M
2023	What is ‘Surplus in man’, according to Tagore?	5M
2023	What does Aurobindo mean by ‘Life Divine’?	5M

Buddhism

Significance of Buddha’s Teachings in Administration

4 Noble Truth – 

• The truth of suffering (Dukkha)
• The truth of the cause of suffering (Samudaya)
• The truth of the end of suffering (Nirodha)
• Truth of the path that leads to the end of suffering (Magga)

Significance in administration – 

• Sufferings in administration –
  • Frequent transfers
  • Heavy workload
  • Political interference
• Path that ends suffering –
  • Emotional intelligence (Right mindfulness)
  • Values like integrity, efficiency, resilience
  • 8 Fold path

8 fold path and their significance –

• Right mindfulness
  • Crowd control
• Right concentration
• Right understanding
• Right thought
• Right speech
  • Against Hate speech
  • Social media community guidelines
• Right action
  • Actions In accordance with law
• Right livelihood
  • Against Corruption
  • Against child labour
• Right Effort

Madhyam Marg promotes –

• Religious tolerance
• Mix economy
• Political neutrality
• Sustainable development
• Diplomatic acumen [India’s stand on Russia-Ukraine]
• Emotional intelligence

Vinaya Pitaka teaches to follow –

• Code of conduct
  • Central civil services conduct rules 1964
  • Rajasthan civil service conduct rules 1971

Dhamma for an administrator is to uphold the principles inscribed in Constitution

Philosophical Stance

Philosophical Stance: 

• Buddha did not prioritize metaphysical questions, often remaining silent when asked about topics like the soul, God, or the nature of the universe. 
• This led to the development of the Madhyamaka tradition, which propounded the concept of shunyavada (emptiness) through this method of silence.
  • Doctrine of Void
  • Shunyavada is a school of the Mahayana Buddhist tradition

Avyaktani (The Unanswered Questions):

• Buddha deemed certain philosophical questions as Avyaktani—unanswered or irrelevant—because they lacked practical significance and did not contribute to alleviating human suffering. These included questions about the eternity of the world, the nature of the soul, and rebirth.

Buddha as the Great Physician

Comparison to Medicine:

• Buddha’s approach to philosophy and religion was like that of a skilled physician.
• Just as in medicine, where disease, cause, diagnosis, and treatment are crucial, Buddha outlined Four Noble Truths as explained below – 
• 1. Dukkha (Suffering): Recognizing suffering
  • Life is inherently filled with suffering, including birth, aging, illness, and death. Even worldly pleasures are temporary and ultimately lead to pain and dissatisfaction
• 2. Samudaya (Cause of Suffering): Understanding the origins of suffering
  • Ignorance (Avidya), ego, attachment, hatred etc 
• 3. Nirodha (Cessation of Suffering): Achieving the cessation of suffering
  • The end of suffering is possible and is called Nirvana. Nirvana represents the ultimate peace and cessation of the cycle of rebirth. There are two types of Nirvana:
    • Upadhisesha Nirvana: Life continues with the goal of helping others achieve Nirvana.
    • Anupadhisesha Nirvana: Complete cessation of rebirth and the cycle of existence.
• 4. Magga (Path to Cessation): Following the path to end suffering
• Samadhi (Meditation): Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, Right Concentration

Main Features of Buddhism

Four Noble Truths

• Explained above

The Middle Path

• Buddhism advocates a middle path between two extreme philosophies: Uchhedvaad (total annihilation of the soul) and Shashvatvaad (eternal permanence of the soul).
• Rejection of Extremes:
  • Uchhedvaad is rejected because Buddhism accepts the concept of rebirth.
  • Shashvatvaad is also rejected because Nirvana signifies liberation from the cycle of rebirth, suggesting that the soul is not eternal in the conventional sense.
• Moderation in Practice: Buddhism is seen as a moderate religion, balancing between asceticism and hedonism.

Doctrine of Momentariness 

• Anityavada (Doctrine of Impermanence): Life and objects are constantly changing and are inherently temporary. The Dhammapada states that even what seems eternal is subject to destruction.
• Kshanikvaad (Doctrine of Momentary Existence): Every object exists momentarily, akin to a drop of water appearing and disappearing instantly.

Arthakriyakaritva (Functionality)

• This principle states that an object exists only as long as it can produce some effect or work. According to this view, if an object is capable of performing an action, it exists; if it cannot, it does not exist
• This concept supports Kshanikvaad by emphasizing the momentary nature of existence
• Administration –
  • Performance-based pay and promotions
  • Compulsory retirement 
  • Suspend and even Termination from services if not doing justice with his/her duty

Anatmavaad (Doctrine of No-Self)

• Buddha denied the existence of an eternal, unchanging soul. He compared belief of an eternal soul to loving an imaginary woman
• Nagasena’s Explanation: The self is comparable to a chariot, which is merely a collection of parts (e.g., axle, wheels, ropes). The self is a collection of the five skandhas (aggregates): form, feeling, perception, mental formations, and consciousness.
• Similarly, an efficient administration run with the help of all stakeholders like public representatives, policymakers, Seniors, Juniors, office staff etc

Doctrine of Rebirth

• Rebirth: Buddha explained rebirth not as the transmigration of an eternal soul but as the continuation of a stream of consciousness 
• When a cycle of consciousness ends, a new cycle begins in a new body
• Rebirth is like lighting one lamp from another; it’s a flow of knowledge rather than a transfer of a permanent self

Atheism (अनीश्वरवाद)

• Buddhism does not believe in a creator God or an eternal deity. Buddha taught that the world operates according to the law of Pratitya samutpada (dependent origination), and that everything is governed by natural laws rather than divine intervention. 
• Buddha encouraged self-reliance and personal effort for spiritual growth, encapsulated in the teaching “Atmadeepobhav” (be your own light). Despite this, later Buddhist traditions have sometimes deified Buddha to satisfy religious needs.

Jainism

Main Features and Principles of Jainism

Tattva Mimansa (Doctrine of Reality):

In Jainism, the journey from bondage to liberation is understood through seven key elements or tattvas. These elements explain the state of liberation and the nature of existence:

Jiva (Soul): 

Jiva represents the soul with consciousness. In Jainism, the soul is characterized by (Anant Chatushtaya (अनंत चतुष्टय) – infinite vision, knowledge, bliss, and power. There are two categories of Jiva:

• Liberated Beings (मुक्त जीव ): Souls that have achieved liberation and are free from worldly cycles.
• Bound Beings (बद्ध जीव ): Souls that are still in the cycle of birth and rebirth, categorized further into:
  • Sthavar (स्थावर): Those who work without any tendency to do good or harm and those who are composed of only one sense (touch) and are immovable such as vegetation etc.
  • Tras (त्रस): Those who work with the feeling of good or bad and who are endowed with 2 to 5 senses are Tras. All living beings from an ant to man are included in this

Ajiva (Non-Soul):

Ajiva refers to inanimate substances devoid of consciousness. It is classified into five types:

• Dharma: The principle that facilitates movement.
• Adharma: The principle that facilitates stillness, chaos and disorder. 

Aakash (Space):

Ajiva refers to inanimate substances devoid of consciousness. It is classified into five types:

• Dharma: The principle that facilitates movement.
• Adharma: The principle that facilitates stillness, chaos and disorder. 
• Aakash (Space): The expanse that provides room for other substances.
• Pudgal (Matter): The visible, tangible substance that can be combined or broken down. Atoms and their aggregates constitute Pudgal.
• Time: An eternal element that induces changes in substances. It is divided into:
  • Practical Time: Observable changes.
  • Spiritual Time: The metaphysical concept of time.

Astrava (Flow of Karma):

The influx of karma particles towards the soul. It includes:

• Bhavastrava: The flow resulting from mental resolutions.
• Dravyastrava: The flow resulting from physical actions.

Bandhan (Bondage):

The process of karma binding to the soul. It has two aspects:

• Bhaav Bandhan: The mental inclination that attracts karma.
• Dravya Bandhan: The physical attachment of karma to the soul.
• Types of Bandhan:
  • Prakriti Bandh: Nature of the karmas (Ghatiya घातीय  or Aghatiya अघातीय).
  • Sthiti Bandh: Duration of the bondage.
  • Section (अनुभाग) Bandh: Intensity of the bondage.
  • Region (प्रदेश) Bandh: Extent of the bondage on the soul.
• Causes of Bondage:
  • Mithyatva (मिथ्यात्व): Perceiving falsehood as truth.
  • Avirati: Indulgence in uncontrolled behavior.
  • Pramad: Wasting time.
  • Kashaya: Actions driven by pride, attachment, anger, and greed.

Samvar (Prevention of Karma Accumulation):

Stopping the influx of new karma particles into the soul. It is achieved through:

• Bhaav Samvara: Internal control over karma influx.
• Dravya Samvara: External measures to prevent new karma accumulation.
• Methods of Samvar:
  • Gupti: Restraint of actions.
  • Samiti: Careful conduct in various activities.
  • Dharma: Observing ethical principles.
  • Anupreksha: Reflection on spiritual aspects.
  • Parishah (परिषह): Enduring hardships for spiritual progress.
  • Charitra: Adherence to moral and ethical behavior.

Nirjara (Destruction of Karma)

Nirjara refers to the process of removing karma particles that have accumulated on the soul through disciplined practices like meditation and yoga. It is the opposite of Bandhan (bondage), which involves the accumulation of karma particles. Nirjara involves:

• Destruction of Karma Atoms: Achieved through spiritual practices.
• Types of Nirjara:
  • Material Nirjara: The physical process of shedding karma.
  • Spiritual Nirjara: The internal, mental process of purifying the soul.

Moksha (Liberation)

• Moksha represents the ultimate state of liberation and freedom from the cycle of birth and rebirth. It is achieved when:
• New Karma Influx Ceases: Through Samvar (prevention of new karma).
• Old Karma is Eliminated: Through Nirjara (destruction of existing karma).
• Moksha is characterized by:
  • Union with Infinite Qualities: The soul returns to its pure, infinite state of vision, knowledge, bliss, and power.
  • State of No Rebirth: The liberated soul does not undergo further reincarnation.
• Kevali: A practitioner who has destroyed the four types of destructive karmas and attained Keval Gyan(omniscience). This state is similar to the concept of Jeevanmukta in Sankhya and Advaita Vedanta.
• Liberated Soul: After the destruction of the remaining four non-fatal karmas, the soul achieves liberation, similar to Videha Mukti.
• State of Liberation: in liberation:
  • Separation from the Body: The soul departs from the physical form.
  • Ascension: The soul rises to the highest realm of the worldly sky known as Siddhashila.
  • Eternal Rest: The liberated soul resides in Siddhashila, beyond which movement is impossible.
• Path to Salvation
  • Gunastanas (Stages of Spiritual Development): A ladder of fourteen steps that a worldly soul must ascend to achieve salvation.
• Triratna (Three Jewels): The primary methods for attaining salvation:
  • Samyak Darshan (Right Faith): Belief in Jain Tirthankaras and the Jain scriptures, reflecting intellectual faith in truth rather than superstition.
  • Samyak Gyan (Right Knowledge): Understanding the difference between living and non-living entities, free from doubt and flaws.
  • Samyak Charitra (Right Conduct): Engaging in moral actions and avoiding immoral ones. This includes:
• Panchamahavrata: The Five Great Vows:
  • Ahimsa: Non-violence.
  • Satya: Truthfulness.
  • Asteya: Non-stealing.
  • Aparigraha: Non-possessiveness.
  • Brahmacharya: Celibacy or moderation in sensual pleasures.
• Samiti (Precautions): Rules for careful conduct:
  • Irya Samiti: Rules of movement to avoid harm.
  • Bhasha Samiti: Rules of speech to ensure beneficial communication.
  • Eshna Samiti: Rules for begging and receiving alms.
  • Aadhan-Nishpan Samiti: Saving a portion of alms for public welfare.
  • Utsarjan Samiti: Proper disposal of excreta.
• Gupti (Restraint): Self-restraint in:
  • Manogupti: Mind.
  • Vak Gupti: Speech.
  • Kayagupti: Body.

Anupreksha (Contemplations):

multiple reflections on various aspects of existence and practice:

1. Anitya: Impermanence of the world.
2. Asharan: Helplessness of life.
3. Ekatva: Solitude in birth, aging, and death.
4. Anyatva: Non-ownership of worldly things.
5. Ashuchi: Impurity of the body.
6. Sansar: Nature of the worldly cycle.
7. Lok: Nature of the universe.
8. Astrava: Reasons for karma bondage.
9. Samvar: Methods for preventing karma influx.
10. Nirjara: Means of karma destruction.
11. Dharma: Nature of righteousness.
12. Bodhi: Ways to attain knowledge.

Parishaha (Endurance):

The ability to endure various sufferings to cleanse the soul. (total-22 types)

Essential Dharmas (Virtues):

Jain philosophers emphasize following ten key virtues for salvation:

1. Kshama: Forgiveness.
2. Arjav: Honesty.
3. Mardav: Humility.
4. Shaucha: Purity.
5. Satya: Truthfulness.
6. Sanyam: Self-control.
7. Tapasya: Austerity.
8. Sacrifice: Renunciation.
9. Akinchanya: Non-attachment.
10. Brahmacharya: Chastity.

By following the Triratna and these practices, an individual can achieve liberation, characterized by the cessation of karmic accumulation and the realization of the soul’s true nature.

Karma Theory in Jainism

• In Jainism, karma is viewed as a form of subtle matter that attaches to the soul, affecting its journey through the cycle of rebirths.
• The Jain karmic theory is detailed and complex, covering various types of karma and stages of their influence. Here’s an organized overview:

Types of Karma

1. Gyanavarniya Karma: Affects the soul’s cognitive abilities, impeding its knowledge.
2. Darshanavarniya Karma: Blocks the soul’s perceptive abilities and experience.
3. Mohaniya Karma: Obstructs a person’s true philosophical understanding and ethical conduct. It includes:
   • Darshan Moh: Confusion regarding the true nature of reality.
   • Charitra Moh: Hindrance in practicing proper conduct.
4. Antaray Karma: Creates obstacles in achieving desired goals and accomplishments.
5. Vedniya Karma: Causes experiences of pleasure and pain. It includes:
   • Satavedaniya: Causes experiences of happiness.
   • Asatvedniya: Causes experiences of suffering.
   • Ayu Karma: Determines the lifespan, age, and gender of future lives.
   • Naam Karma: Shapes a person’s personality and physical attributes, such as beauty or ugliness.
   • Gotra Karma: Determines the caste and clan of a person.

Classification of Karma

• Ghatiya Karmas (घातीय कर्म): These are detrimental to the soul’s natural qualities and hinder liberation. They include:
  • Gyanavarniya
  • Darshanavarniya
  • Mohaniya
  • Antaray
• Aghatiya Karmas (अघातीय कर्म): These do not obstruct the soul’s natural qualities and are more about the physical and social conditions. They include:
  • Naam
  • Gotra
  • Ayu
  • Vedniya
  • Aghatiya karmas are seen as less obstructive compared to Ghatiya karmas, akin to “roasted seeds” which cannot produce new karma.

Stages of Karma

1. Bondage (Bandhan): The attachment of karma particles to the soul due to passions and actions.
2. Transition (Parivartan): When one type of karma transforms into another similar type.
3. Utkarshan: The process where previously bound karmas increase in intensity and duration.
4. Refraction (Vikshepa): The reduction in intensity and duration of previously bound karmas.
5. Satta: The period during which karma remains attached to the soul before it yields results.
6. Udaya: The stage when karma begins to produce its effects. It includes:
   • Pradesodaya: When karmas produce their results without prior notice.
   • Vipakodaya: When karmas produce results after experiencing their effects.
7. Udirana: The deliberate ripening of karma before its natural time through efforts.
8. Upashaman: Suppression of the karmas’ potential to produce results, similar to covering a fire to keep it from burning.
9. Niddhati: A state where karma cannot transform or produce results but can have its time, intensity, and effects altered.
10. Nikachana: The most intense stage of karma binding, where karma is fixed and must be experienced as it is bound.

Principle of Non-Violence (Ahimsa)

In Jainism, non-violence (Ahimsa) is a fundamental principle, not just applied narrowly but across all aspects of life. It encompasses:

• Physical Actions: Avoiding harm to any living being.
• Speech: Speaking truthfully and avoiding harmful words.
• Thoughts: Cultivating non-violent thoughts and attitudes.

This broad application of non-violence reflects Jainism’s emphasis on compassion and ethical living in every aspect of life.

Atheism(अनीश्वरवाद) in Jainism

Jainism is considered atheistic because it does not accept the existence of a creator God. This atheistic stance is based on several key philosophical points:

1. Eternal Nature of the World: Jainism posits that the universe is eternal and operates under its own natural laws. According to Jain thought, the cosmos has always existed and will continue to exist without the need for a creator deity. The cycles of creation and destruction are governed by these natural laws rather than by any divine intervention.
2. Karma Theory: The concept of karma — the law of cause and effect — provides a framework for understanding how actions in one’s past lives affect one’s present and future experiences. This theory replaces the need for a divine being to account for the existence and organization of the universe.
3. Role of Tirthankaras: Although Jainism does not believe in a creator God, it does revere Tirthankaras, who are enlightened beings that have achieved liberation and serve as spiritual guides. Tirthankaras are not seen as gods but as role models who have attained the highest spiritual realization. They are worshipped for their exemplary conduct and the guidance they provide.
4. Panch-Parmeshti: In Jainism, the concept of Panch-Parmeshti includes five revered beings:
   • Arhat (अर्हत ➡️ अरहंत): A Tirthankara who has achieved enlightenment.
   • Siddha: A liberated soul who has attained the highest spiritual state and is free from the cycle of rebirth.
   • Acharya: The head of a Jain monastic order.
   • Upadhyay: A teacher within the Jain monastic community.
   • Sadhu: A monk who practices the Jain path.
   • Worshipping these figures is a significant aspect of Jain religious practice.
5. Religious Practices: Despite its atheistic position, Jainism maintains a vibrant religious tradition. Practices and rituals focus on self-discipline, non-violence, and the pursuit of spiritual growth. Jains engage in various religious activities, including meditation, prayer, and the observance of ethical principles.
6. Self-Reliance in Achieving Welfare: Jainism emphasizes that salvation and liberation are achieved through one’s own efforts. By adhering to ethical conduct, self-discipline, and the principles of non-violence, individuals can work towards the destruction of their karma and attain spiritual liberation.

Mahavira ( Jainism )

Significance of Mahavira’s Teachings in Administration

5 Mahavarta

Ahimsa –

• Against modern wars [Russia-Ukraine]
• Against torture of criminals [Humanitarian grounds]

Satya – 

• Integrity in broader sense

Asteya –

• Against Corruption (Corruption is equivalent to stealing of public fund]
• Protection of intellectual rights

Brahmacharya –

• Protection of modesty of women
• Article 51A (e) enjoins upon every citizen to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women
• Vishakha Guidelines

Aparigraha (Non-possession) –

• Sustainable development and environment protection

Ratnatraya (3 path to salvation)

Samyak darshan or right faith –

• Faith in constitution and law of the land
• Faith in religious harmony and tolerance
• Faith in public institutions like judiciary

Samyak Jnana or right knowledge

• Knowledge of article, rights, duties
• Knowledge of code of conduct
• Knowledge of diverse culture of India

Samyak charitra or right conduct

• Conduct that leads to service of mankind
• Gandhi’s talisman should be mantra of every public administrator

Other Concepts:

• All souls have equal value- 
  • Hence we should must treat every living being with equal respect
    • Eg. – Kailash Sayarthi’s Bachpan Bachao Andolan
    • Eg. – Prakash Baba Amte (Magsaysay Award for community leadership)
    • Eg. – Jadav Payeng [Forest man of India]
    • Eg. – Mother Teresa
• Michhami Dukkadam 🙏 –
  • India forgave British empire and joined commonwealth
  • Japan forgave US for Hiroshima and Nagashaki
  • Rama forgives his stepmother Kekaiyi, who had exiled him for 14 years without his fault
  • Karna forgave Kunti
• Concept of Jina –
  • A self disciplined and knowledgeable person can be called jina. In modern world, Jinas are –
    • APJ Abdul kalam
    • Late PM Lal Bahadur Shashtri

Hinduism

Significance of Hinduism Teachings in Administration

Varnashrama dharma

• Based on Action and nature [Hence promote hard work and good conduct]
• Promotes division of labor = Efficiency [Specialization and Expertise]
• Preservation of Culture and Traditions
• Adaptability and Flexibility [As one can change Varna]
• Promotes Social Order and Stability

Purushartha –

• Dharma – Living life according to righteousness Promotes ethical and moral conduct in society
  • Social order and harmony
  • Values like
    • Ram Rajya [Welfare state]
    • Peace
    • Tolerance
• Artha – Earning legitimate amount of wealth by right means
  • Against corruption
  • Against accumulation of wealth
  • मा गृधः कस्यस्विधनम् (किसी के धन का लालची मत बनो)
  • साई इतना दीजिये, जा मे कुटुम समाय।
  • मैं भी भूखा न रहूँ, साधु ना भूखा जाय ।।
• Kaam – Fulfilling bodily desires with self discipline
  • Family planning
  • Dignity of women
• Moksha – Being one with supreme being
  • Promotion of spiritual values

Samyam (संयम) – 

• Samayama on food – Keeps non communicable diseases at bay (Diabetes, Obesity etc)
• Samyama on carnal desires
  • Vishaka guidelines
• Monetary Samayama – Honesty, transparency, Integrity

SWAMI VIVEKANANDA

GOD, COSMOS AND HUMAN PERSON

Vivekananda’s idealism is grounded in the belief that the ultimate reality, Brahman, is spiritual and absolute. He sees this reality as changeless and beyond time, space, and causation,  and describes it as Sat-Cit-Ananda (Existence-Consciousness-Bliss).

God and the Absolute: 

• Swami Vivekananda views the Absolute and God as one and the same, with the Absolute being the ultimate reality (Brahman) and God from a religious perspective. 
• Vivekananda sees God as a reflection of the divine spark within every human being and the ultimate Ideal of life, achievable through love. 
• Although he often describes God as both personal and impersonal, he tends to favor the personal aspect to make religion more accessible to ordinary people, while remaining true to Vedantic principles.

Cosmos:

• Creation is seen as God’s expression in finite forms. He explains that the Infinite becomes finite through the concepts of Time, Space, and Causation, which depend on our minds. Creation is not a finished product but an ongoing process.

Human Person:

• According to Vivekananda, the true human being is a “concentration of spiritual energy.” A person is fundamentally a spirit, not merely what they appear to be. 
• Vivekananda argues that humans are spiritual because they possess unique aspirations and urges. His philosophy portrays humans as an integrated unity of the physical and spiritual aspects.
  • Importantly, he never undermines the significance of the body in his teachings.

Yoga: The Ways of Realization

According to Vivekananda, the soul realizes immortality through yoga, which means both “union” and a form of “discipline.”

• Way of Knowledge (Jnana Yoga): This path addresses bondage caused by ignorance. Ignorance is not knowing the true nature of things. Jnana Yoga aims to overcome this ignorance.
• Way of Devotion (Bhakti Marga): This approach involves knowing God through intense feelings. Strong emotions can awaken human potential. Ordinary love can become Divine Love. This is the essence of Bhakti Marga.
• Way of Action (Karma Marga): This path seeks freedom through selfless actions. By performing good deeds, one rises above the self. This leads to oneness with everything and the realization of immortality.
• Way of Psychology (Raj Yoga): Raj Yoga involves the realization of immortality by controlling the mind and body through physical and mental disciplines. 

Although Vivekananda describes these paths differently, he asserts that they all lead to the same ultimate goal.

TOWARDS UNIVERSAL RELIGION

Purpose of Religion:

• All religions aim to transcend nature and achieve spiritual realization.
• True religion is not found in books or temples but in direct perception of God and the soul.
• Religion is about being and becoming, not just doctrines or intellectual arguments.

Three Basic Elements of Religion:

• Philosophy: Outlines basic principles, goals, and methods of the religion.
• Mythology: Makes the philosophy concrete.
• Rituals: Embody the philosophy through ceremonies and physical expressions.

Unity of Religions:

• All religions are valid as they share the same essential truths.
• Each religion represents a part of universal truth and contributes to the whole.
• Emphasis should be on assimilation and harmony, not exclusion.
• Move beyond tolerance to a positive attitude of respect, sympathy, and understanding.

The Nature of Universal Religion:

A religion qualifies as a “universal religion” if it meets two criteria:

1. Inclusivity: It must be open to all individuals.
2. Universal Comfort: It must offer satisfaction and comfort to every religious sect.

Vivekananda argues that such a universal religion already exists, though it is often overlooked due to external religious conflicts. He believes:

• Complementarity: Religions are not contradictory but complementary. They each focus on different aspects of the same fundamental reality.
• Multiplicity of Views: Different religions may present contradictory views, but these are merely different perspectives on the same Truth.
• Respect and Acceptance: Universal religion requires respect and positive acceptance of all religions. It does not demand a single universal philosophy, mythology, or ritual but encourages open-heartedness and broad-mindedness.

Vivekananda identifies “God” as a common element across all religions, seeing different religions as varying aspects of the same ultimate Truth. He emphasizes that a true universal religion should harmonize philosophy, emotion, work, and mysticism.

Educational Philosophy

• Inherent Knowledge: Vivekananda believed that all knowledge is inherent within the individual and that education’s primary role is to bring this knowledge to the surface.
• Self-Education: He argued that development is a self-driven process. Children educate themselves, and the role of teachers and parents is to provide the necessary opportunities and remove obstacles.
  • He compared this process to gardening, where the gardener provides the environment, but the plant grows on its own.
• Education According to Nature and Needs: Education should be tailored to the nature and needs of the child, rather than being imposed by teachers or parents.
• Man-Making Education: The ultimate goal of education, according to Vivekananda, is “man-making.” This involves developing an integrated person who is self-reliant, strong in character, and capable of contributing positively to society.
• Character Over Literacy: While he recognized the importance of literacy, Vivekananda placed greater emphasis on character development. He argued that education without character is dangerous, as it can lead to the misuse of knowledge and power.
• Self-Realization
  • Vivekananda believed that every individual has an immortal soul, which is a treasure house of infinite power. He emphasized the importance of self-confidence, which leads to self-realization. 
  • He famously said, “Faith in us and faith in God – this is the secret of greatness.” 
  • Education should aim to remove ignorance and help individuals understand their true nature.
• Service of Mankind: Vivekananda saw service to humanity as a form of worshiping God. He urged that education should enable individuals to stand on their own feet and serve the sick, poor, and downtrodden.  “If you want to find God, serve man” 
• Universal Brotherhood: Vivekananda advocated for universal brotherhood, transcending geographical boundaries. He believed that education should help individuals recognize the omnipresent soul in every being, leading to the realization of universal unity.
• Self-Sufficiency: Vivekananda emphasized the practical aspects of life, advocating for education in agriculture and other practical arts to make individuals self-reliant and the nation prosperous.
• Physical and Mental Development: Education should promote both physical and mental development, preparing individuals to contribute to national growth and stand on their own economically, rather than being dependent on others
• Moral and Spiritual Development: Vivekananda argued that a nation’s greatness is measured not just by its institutions but by the moral and spiritual development of its citizens. Education should foster this development to create great citizens
• Unity in Diversity: Education should develop the insight to see unity in diversity.  Vivekananda believed that the distinction between the physical and spiritual worlds is an illusion, and education should help individuals realize this unity
• Role of Teacher: Teachers, according to Vivekananda, should be ideal examples for their students, contributing to their spiritual development and teaching according to the students’ needs and interests.
• Role of Student: Students should be eager to learn, control their senses, and follow the ideals laid down by their teachers.
• Curriculum: Vivekananda advocated for a balanced curriculum that fosters both spiritual growth and material prosperity. He recommended a wide range of subjects, from religious and philosophical studies to practical arts and sciences.
• Importance of Yoga: Vivekananda placed great importance on concentration and meditation in the learning process, believing that all knowledge is within the human mind and can be accessed through these practices.
• Activity Method: Vivekananda suggested that education should be activity-based, involving students in practical experiences like dance, drama, and inter-school competitions to foster a sense of societal responsibility.
• Peace Education: Vivekananda believed that education should aim to develop spiritual awareness and a conscious vision for peace and humanity’s mission, preparing young people for the challenges of modern life.
• Environmental Education: Vivekananda viewed environmental education as essential for sustainable living, emphasizing practical problem-solving and interdisciplinary approaches to manage and conserve resources.
• Education for Citizenship: Education should prepare individuals to participate actively in democratic life, understanding their rights and responsibilities, and working towards the welfare of society.

ETHICS OF SWAMI VIVEKANANDA

He served as a dynamic counterpart to Ramakrishna Paramahamsa and aimed to integrate Sankara’s Advaita Vedanta with Ramakrishna’s teachings.

Unity in Variety:

• The central theme of Vedanta for Vivekananda is the unity in variety. He posits that the universal soul is manifested within the material world, where the finite forms are real expressions of the absolute.

Philosophy :

• All is Brahman; the jiva (individual soul) is essentially Siva (the divine). Every creature is a specific manifestation of God, in different names and forms. 
• Brahman’s manifestation varies: the moon and stars, as well as lower creatures and higher beings, represent different forms of this divine presence. All human beings are potentially divine and perfect.

Rationality

• He was in complete agreement with the methods and results of modern science. He did not discard reason in favor of faith.
• He recognized intuition or inspiration as a higher faculty than reason. But the truth derived from intuition had to be explained and systematized by reason.

Nationalism

• Swami Vivekananda’s nationalism is deeply rooted in Indian spirituality and morality. His nationalism is based on Humanism and Universalism, the two cardinal features of Indian spiritual culture.
• Unlike western nationalism which is secular in nature, Swami Vivekananda’s nationalism is based on religion which is the life blood of the Indian people.

Empowerment of the Youth

• Youth as the Backbone of the Nation: Vivekananda saw the youth as the most powerful force for national progress. He believed that if the energy and potential of the youth were properly harnessed, they could transform India and the world.
• Inspiration and Leadership: He urged the youth to be courageous, disciplined, and self-reliant, encouraging them to take up leadership roles in society. He inspired them to dedicate their lives to the service of others, particularly the poor and the downtrodden.
• Swamiji called upon the youth to not only build up their mental energies, but their physical ones as well. He wanted ‘muscles of iron’ as well as ‘nerves of steel’.

Practical Vedanta 

He liberated the Vedantic ideas and ideals from the caves, forests and made them available to the common man. Therefore his Vedanta is called Practical Vedanta.

Characteristics of Practical Vedanta : 

Universality : 

• Vedanta is considered a universal religion with three schools: Advaita, Visistadvaita, and Dvaita. These represent different stages in spiritual growth and are not contradictory but complementary. Vedanta’s universality lies in its truths applying to all humanity. It emphasizes the oneness of all and the continuity of existence, with the same spiritual essence flowing through every person.

Impersonality : 

• Vedanta’s principles are not dependent on specific historical figures or incarnations. Unlike religions that hinge on the lives of their founders (e.g., Christianity, Islam, Buddhism), Vedanta is grounded in eternal principles. This makes Vedanta a universal religion, where truth is paramount, rather than personalities.

Rationality

• Alignment with Science: Vedanta is in harmony with modern scientific principles. Both Vedanta and science suggest that the universe is a manifestation of a singular reality, with Vedanta emphasizing the spiritual oneness of all existence.
• While Vedanta values intuition and inspiration, it maintains that these insights must be rationally explained and systematized. This reflects a balance between reason and higher faculties of understanding.

Catholicity

• According to Swami Vivekananda action, devotion, meditation, knowledge all have their due place in the scheme of religious life. Guidance is here given to all kinds of aspirants in all stages of growth. 
• Hinduism is often compared to a mansion in which rooms are available to all classes of men, from the lowest peasant to the highest mystic.

Optimism

• Optimism (Hopefulness) is the life breath of Vedanta. Vedanta is a religion of strength and hope, not a religion of weakness and despair. 
• It teaches that every individual possesses inherent divinity and potential for infinite progress. This optimism fosters self-reliance and a sense of dignity and sacredness, encouraging people to seek salvation from within.

Humanism

• The masses should be our Gods. Service to man is service to God. We should perceive Siva in every Jīva. We should serve not Narayana in the temple but Lame-Narayana, blind-Narayana, hungry Narayana and have not Narayana. 
• Vivekananda emphasized, “First food, then Brahman. It is sin to teach Vedanta to the poor.” He believed that the poor and hungry should be fed before engaging in spiritual teachings. He also stated, “I am not interested in my own moksha. I shall not have it till each one gets it.” 
• For him, ignorance and illiteracy were major obstacles to progress. He urged educated youth to help eradicate these issues. Vivekananda dedicated his life to the religious and social regeneration of his country, focusing on serving the starving and oppressed.

Religion

• Vivekananda was concerned with spiritual truth rather than physical, dogmatic, or scientific discoveries. For him, religion is about personal experience, not just a system of dogmas.
• Thus he clearly illustrates the attitude of the East and the West towards spirit. The western idea is that man is a body and has a soul. According to the East man is a soul and has a body.

Necessity of religion:  

• Religion is deeply embedded in Indian life, flowing through the culture for thousands of years. It is integral to the people’s identity and should be supported and lived, not opposed or neglected.

True vs. Institutional Religion:

• True Religion: Personal and experiential; involves transcending dogmas and rituals to achieve God-realization.
• Institutional Religion: Involves external forms like dogmas and rituals but is not sufficient for true God-realization.

Personal Religion: 

• Again personal religion consists in rendering service to humanity. The best form of religion is to see Shiva represented in living men and especially in the poor. It consists in serving a lame Narayana, a blind Narayana and so on. 

Expression of Love: 

• Religion is the highest expression of love and devotion, beauty and sublimity. 
• Freedom is central to spiritual life, and religion should be an inner urge rather than dry formalism.

Spiritual Transformation:

• True spirituality involves inner transformation, not just intellectual understanding or blind faith.
• Religion should inspire strength and resilience to face life’s challenges, rather than escaping to renunciation or isolation.

Religion of Love:

• Love is key to uniting humanity and is synonymous with God.
• Vivekananda believed that love is essential for bringing people together and that it embodies the divine.
• But he is never tired of saying that love or emotion must not sink into sentimentality. His formula is, if your heart comes into conflict with the head, follow the heart. But he is against excessive emotionalism.

Action and Service:

• Religion should promote strength, activism, and work towards the religious regeneration of mankind through both renunciation and service.

Distinction from Sentimentality:

• Religion should be distinguished from mere sentimentality and should not be confused with rituals and customs.
• Emotion is temporary, whereas true religion is enduring and deeply rooted in spiritual experience.
• Vivekananda criticized the association of customs with religion, calling it a “shop-keeping religion” where God is viewed as a means to an end rather than the ultimate goal.
• He opposed ritual-ridden practices like Tantra and emphasized the importance of a practical, man-making religion over occultism and mysticism

Real and Practical Religion:

• He believed in a God who gives bread in this world, rather than one who only promises bliss in the afterlife.
• A religion focused solely on renunciation leads to inaction and isolation, which Vivekananda opposed.

Divinity in Humanity:

• Vivekananda argued against the depiction of humans as weak and helpless sinners, promoting instead the idea that humans are the true abode of divinity.
• He emphasized that religion should focus on recognizing and drawing out the divinity within every person.

Essence of Religion:

• Religion is not merely found in books or intellectual assent; it is about realization and personal experience.
• It is a natural part of human life and the source of the highest kind of happiness.

Universal Religion:

• “The religions of the world are not contradictory and antagonistic. They are but various phases of one eternal religion”. 
• Vivekananda believed in the possibility of a universal religion, despite the differences in mythology, rituals, social values, and philosophies among world religions.
• The essence of all religion is the same and that is God-realization.
• A religion of love, peace and harmony is a universal religion

Swami Vivekananda’s Quotes

• Man making means a harmonious development of the body, mind and soul.
•  “Arise! Awake! And stop not until the goal is reached.”
• They alone live, who live for others.
• “Be not Afraid of anything. You will do Marvelous work. it is Fearlessness that brings Heaven even in a moment.”
• All love is expansion, all selfishness is contraction. Love is therefore the only law of life.
• “You cannot believe in God until you believe in yourself.”
• “In a conflict between the heart and the brain, follow your heart. ”
• “Truth can be stated in a thousand different ways, yet each one can be true”
•  “Whatever you think that you will be. If you think yourself weak, weak you will be; if you think yourself strong,strong  you will be.”
• “Be the servant while leading. Be unselfish. Have infinite patience, and success is yours.”
• “Take risks in your life, If you win, you can lead! If you lose, you can guide!
•  “Meditation can turn fools into sages but unfortunately, fools never meditate.”
• “Comfort is no test of truth. Truth is often far from being comfortable.”
• “Do one thing at a Time, and while doing it put your whole Soul into it to the exclusion of all else.”
• “The greatest religion is to be true to your own nature. Have faith in yourselves.”
• “In a day when you don’t come across any problems, you can be sure that you are traveling in a wrong path.”
• “The greatest sin is to think yourself weak”
• “Anything that makes you weak – physically, intellectually and spiritually, reject it as poison.”
• “Dare to be free, dare to go as far as your thought leads, and dare to carry that out in your life. ”
• “We are what our thoughts have made us; so take care about what you think. Words are secondary. Thoughts live; they travel far. ”
• “Each work has to pass through these stages — ridicule, opposition, and then acceptance. Those who think ahead of their time are sure to be misunderstood.”
•  “Take up one idea. Make that one idea your life – think of it, dream of it, and live on that idea. Let the brain, muscles, nerves, every part of your body, be full of that idea, and just leave every other idea alone. This is the way to success that is way great spiritual giants are produced.”

R.N. TAGORE

R.N. TAGORE Philosophy

Religion of Man: Divinization of Man and Humanization of God

• Divinization of Man: Tagore believed that each person possesses a divine essence within. The purpose of life is to realize and express this inner divinity. As humans evolve spiritually, they move closer to embodying the qualities of God—love, compassion, wisdom, and unity.
• Humanization of God: Tagore saw God as deeply connected to human experience, not as a distant or abstract entity. He envisioned God manifesting in the world through human actions, emotions, and creativity. By recognizing the divine in everyday life and in our interactions with others, we bring God closer to the human realm. Tagore also calls his God ‘The Man of his heart’.

Humanism: 

• Human as Divine Expression: He advocated for human brotherhood because he believed that all people are fundamentally the same. He thought that by comprehending people, one may reach the ultimate objective of existence.
• Inspired by Jesus Christ’s message, Tagore emphasizes serving humanity through education and medicine. He said that the impact of one’s life is judged by two questions: How many people did you help overcome ignorance, and how many did you alleviate from suffering?

“Supreme Man”: 

• In Gitanjali, Tagore suggests that God is to be discovered in man or woman rather than in the confines of organized religions (temples). The Absolute is referred to as the “Supreme Man.”

Reality and God : 

• Tagore merges ‘God’ and ‘reality,’ often avoiding the term ‘Absolute’ in favor of terms like ‘The Universal Man’ and ‘The Supreme Spirit.’ 

Understanding Nature: 

• Tagore believed that humans should understand their relationship with nature just as they do with other people. He saw the Creator’s expression reflected in nature.

PHILOSOPHY OF HUMAN PERSON

“The Surplus in Man”: 

• Tagore believed that humans have a capacity to go beyond their immediate needs and desires. Hence they exhibit a capacity for creativity, aesthetics, and moral development

Self-Realization: 

• Self-realization involves recognizing oneself as an individual distinct from others. 
• It’s a method of fully understanding one’s existence, reflecting on one’s thoughts, and guiding them in response to the circumstances.

Individual Freedom: 

• Tagore advocated for granting each person the appropriate level of freedom, recognizing that no two individuals are the same. 
• He believed that every person is entitled to determine the course of their own life, which reflects the diversity of the world. Despite this diversity, there is unity in that everything originates from God.

Nature of the Human Person: 

• Tagore said, “The ultimate destiny is the realization of immortality, of complete freedom. The spiritual progress of human beings is from bondage to freedom”
• He believed that a person’s true nature is something they have not yet fully realized, often obscured by selfishness. 
• By removing ignorance (avidya), a person’s true nature, hidden by the ego (‘aham’), will be revealed, allowing them to transcend the confines of time and space.

The Self, Individuality, and Universality of the Human Person: 

• Tagore emphasized that the self within us is divine, a part of God. This divine self grants each person a unique individuality, which is indestructible and represents their field of freedom. 
• However, a human being is not only an individual but also universal, as they harbor an idea of perfection connecting them to others in shared universality. This unity transcends social, educational, economic, and political differences, reflecting the inherent oneness of all humanity.

Immortality of the Human Being: 

• Tagore viewed humans as great not only for their desire to connect with all but also because they are an expression of God. 
• As reflections of the Divine Artist, humans cannot be confined by the limits of their lower selves. 
• Achieving immortality involves transcending the ego and embracing one’s true nature. 
• He emphasized that humans are “children of immortality,” destined to realize their true greatness, much like the morning sun that continues to rise.

Social and Political Philosophy: 

• Tagore’s social philosophy is deeply intertwined with his humanism.
• It emphasizes the unfolding of every individual’s potential and the coexistence of all human beings in love and companionship, bringing heaven to earth. 
• Tagore actively worked to address the evils of ignorance, poverty, and social injustice in India, advocating for true freedom and equality for all individuals.

Concept of Peace: 

• Tagore’s concept of peace extends beyond the mere absence of war. He believed that true peace is rooted in spiritual harmony, mutual understanding, and love among all people, within and across nations. Peace, for Tagore, is not just the absence of conflict but the presence of positive relationships.

Educational Principles of Tagore

• Tagore’s educational philosophy rests on the pillars of naturalism, humanism, internationalism, and idealism. 
• He believed that education should take place in a natural setting, where children are free to express themselves. He opposed the idea of schools being “dead cages” where minds are fed artificially prepared content. 
• For Tagore, education is a process of enlightenment, where the mind discovers ultimate truth, freeing us from ignorance and material bonds. 
• It prepares us for a full life—economically, intellectually, artistically, socially, and spiritually.
• He has established these two educational institutions, for giving practical shape to his educational ideas, named as Shantiniketan and Viswabharti. Shantiniketan has all characteristics like the “Gurukul system of education” i.e. Student teachers live together far from crowded cities and have natural benefits of fields, trees, rivers, etc.
• Viswabharati, the international university of Shantiniketan, combines Indian as well as western culture, science, literature and art. It emphasizes human brotherhood and International understanding. Through this Tagore wants to establish a link between East and west that is why he supported mother tongue as medium of instruction; but he talks about the importance of English as well.
• Tagore was also a social critic and an educator. He rejected the mechanical, formal system of learning in favour of a curriculum that encouraged creativity, imagination, and moral awareness in students. His philosophy of education incorporated the synthesis of nationalist tradition, Western and Eastern strands of philosophy, science and rationality, and an international cosmopolitan outlook.

Holistic Education

• According to Tagore, education should be a process of self-discovery. That a student learns to develop their potential and talents through creative expression.
• Tagore’s approach to education was holistic, focusing on the development of the whole person. He believed that education should help students to develop their physical, emotional, and intellectual capabilities.

Method of Nature

• While it is true that making children participate in structured activities is beneficial, there is a growing consensus that allowing our children to play freely, doing things that do not require them to be structured and focused, is the way to go if we want this generation to live a life that’s healthy and stress-free.
• Tagore also felt that acquiring knowledge using the “method of nature”, i.e. guessing and experimenting are more effective than explaining; unintentional learning and surprises are more appealing than concentrated effort; and experiencing and understanding the world hands-on is preferred to reading.

Mother Tongue As a Medium of Instruction

• He strongly objected to the educational system, which required students to learn everything in English.
• People can freely express their thoughts in their mother tongues.  Mother tongue is a more suitable medium for learning any skill, specifically when it comes to education.

Sports and Body Movement

• Tagore believed that schools should take care of their students’ physical health in addition to their mental health.  He emphasised that they had a healthy diet and sufficient physical activity.

Creative Teaching Techniques

• Tagore was a poet, novelist, musician, painter, and playwright who did not believe in limiting himself to one medium. He believed that creativity was vital to human life and inspired everyone to be creative.
• Tagore proposed that the child should be exposed to joyful creative teaching techniques in a free, universal, and open-ended knowledge system in which she or he explores all creative mediums. He encouraged students to be creative and express themselves through art forms such as music, dance, drama, and painting.
• Tagore’s poetry legacy and the lessons it can teach us are limitless.

Philosophy on Internationalism

Global Peace: 

• Tagore was a strong advocate for global peace and believed in the unity of humanity. He criticized caste, race, and creed as artificial barriers and supported increased communication between cultures.

East-West Cooperation: 

• He envisioned a harmonious blend of Eastern and Western values to address global issues and promote world peace through initiatives like Vishva Bharti.

Tagore‘s Quotes

• The highest education is that which does not merely give us information but makes our life in harmony with all existence.
• Get rid of the corruption inherent within the heart.
• Don’t limit a child to your own learning, for he was born in another time.
• “I slept and dreamt that life was a joy. I awoke and saw that life was service. I acted and behold, service was a joy.”
• “You cannot cross the sea merely by standing and staring at the water.”
• We live in the world when we love it.

SRI AUROBINDO

• Sri Aurobindo (Arvind Ghose) (1872-1950) was a yogi, nationalist, poet, and spiritual leader. He joined the Indian resistance movement against British rule in 1906 and was arrested in 1908. In 1910, he moved to Pondicherry, where he spent 40 years developing his philosophy of spiritual evolution and integral yoga.
• His main works include; The Future Evolution of Man, The Hour of God, The Life Divine, The Lights on Yoga, Savitri, a Legend and a Symbol, Foundation of Indian Culture, More Lights on Yoga, The Riddle of the World. The ideal of Human Unity, Bases of yoga, The Supernatural Manifestation on Earth etc.
• He believed that religion is Sanatana Dharma, eternal and universal, not confined to any single tradition or text. The true scripture is found in the heart of each individual. He felt that this eternal religion is well expressed in India’s spiritual tradition, and that India has a divine mission to be the guardian, exemplar, and missionary of this religion.

NATURE OF CREATION: THE WORLD-PROCESS

• Sri Aurobindo sees creation as a two-part process: descent (involution) and ascent (evolution).
• Involution involves the spirit descending into matter and experiencing ignorance. 
• Evolution is the reverse process, where matter evolves into higher forms of consciousness, ultimately reaching the Supermind.
• INVOLUTION: Supermind → Overmind → Intuition → Illumined mind → Higher mind → mind → Life → Matter. 
• EVOLUTION: Matter → Life → Mind → Higher mind → Illumined mind → Intuition → Overmind → Supermind

EVOLUTION OF MAN

• Sri Aurobindo’s theory of evolution, as presented in The Life Divine, combines spiritual and humanistic ideas. He believed that the individual soul is continually evolving towards the supreme soul. Currently, humans have reached the mental level of evolution, but we are only partially developed compared to the potential next step: the supramental level. 
• This evolution will lead to the realization of ‘divine manhood’ or ‘supermanhood,’ embodying Sat-Chit-Ananda (Truth-Consciousness-Bliss). 
• Such transformation is possible through Integral Yoga.

Divine life: 

• Divine life, according to Sri Aurobindo, is about evolving from our current state into a higher, divine existence. 
• He believed that humans are not the final stage of evolution. The next step is becoming a ‘superman,’ a more advanced being. 
• This transformation will lead to such a perfection of terrestrial existence that it might well be called a divine life on earth.

Gnostic being: 

• The Gnostic Being represents the next step in evolution, possessing a supramental consciousness that goes beyond the mind and merges with the divine. This new type of being lives a divinized existence, free from ignorance and suffering, and symbolizes a transformation of human nature. It will help humanity evolve into a spiritually integrated society, bringing divine life to earth.

The Psychic Being: 

• It is a conscious form of the soul that’s always guiding us from within. It helps us grow through different stages of life—from life in matter, to mind in life, and eventually from mind to overmind and supramental Truth. It’s our original conscience, acting as a hidden guide and inner light.

PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

• Education should focus on the four layers of the mind: Chitta (passive memory), Manas (sixth sense), Buddhi (intellect), and Intuition (direct vision of knowledge).
• Education, in its true sense, should bring out the latent powers of child to make him complete in every respect. 
• Education that ensures complete or integral development i.e., physical, vital, mental, psychic and spiritual aspects of the child, is called integral education. Such education can give the child a flexible shape so that he may be able to face challenges and meet the changing and growing needs of complex life.

PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION

• Education should be learner – centric.
• Provision for full freedom for the child.
• Should meet the psychological needs of the child.
• Should bring out the latent powers of the child.
• Should develop all the faculties of the child.
• Should be related to the life of the child.
• Medium of instruction should be mother tongue.
• Emphasis on sense training.
• Should develop consciousness of the child.
• Religious education and spiritual development through brahmacharya should be a part of education.

AIM OF EDUCATION

• Development of latent potentialities of the child.
• Development of physical purity, mental faculties, culture and aesthetic senses.
• To train all the senses as senses are the gateways of knowledge.
• Development of conscience –chitta, manas, knowledge and intuition.
• Moral and emotional development.
• Development of spirituality through Yoga and brahmacharya.
• Realization of the self is a must for education.

ROLE OF TEACHER

• According to Aurobindo, a teacher should be a guide and helper, not an instructor. They should inspire self-control, humanity, and spiritual equality in students. 
• Instead of imposing knowledge, a teacher should encourage students to learn and develop naturally with full freedom. 
• Aurobindo believed, “one must be a saint and a hero to be a good teacher.”

AUROBINDO‘s Quotes

• Do not belong to the past dawns,but to the noons of future.
• By our stumbling the world is perfected.
• All life is Yoga.
• A divine life in a divine body is the formula of the ideal that we envisage.

Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan

• Dr. Radhakrishnan’s philosophy was grounded in Advaita Vedanta.
• He defended Hinduism against what he called ‘uniformed Western criticism’ and earned a reputation as a bridge-builder between India and the West.

Monistic idealism: 

• Radhakrishnan views the ‘Absolute’ as “Pure Consciousness,” “Pure Freedom,” and “Infinite Possibility.” It is one, infinite, changeless, self-existent, and beyond all forms of expression. The ‘Absolute’ is eternal and the foundation of everything.

Absolute and God

• Radhakrishnan distinguishes between the ‘Absolute’ and ‘God.’ He argues that to explain the universe, one must conceive of a principle that accounts for its order and purpose, which he identifies as God. 
• The Absolute represents the ultimate reality, while God is its creative expression. 
• The Absolute is the source of all existence, whereas God provides order and purpose to the universe. 
• The ‘Absolute’ is the object of metaphysical aspiration, whereas ‘God’ is the object of religious aspiration.

The Nature of the World and Creation

• ‘God’ is the creative principle of the world. The world is created by ‘God’ and expresses the ‘Divine Plan.’ 
• Creation is a free act of ‘God,’ and the universe is an “accident” of the ‘Absolute,’ yet real.

Human Being and the Nature of the Soul

• Radhakrishnan presents a realistic view of the soul, recognizing both its spiritual essence and the value of biological life. 
• He believes that human beings cannot be fully understood through science alone, as there is something beyond intellect and senses. 
• According to Radhakrishnan, humans have two aspects: the finite and the infinite. 
• The finite aspect of a person is shaped by empirical or environmental conditions, referred to as “the empirical man,” “the physical man,” or “the bodily man.” 
• In contrast, the infinite aspect, or “the spirit,” represents the capacity for self-transcendence and spirituality, transcending external conditioning.
• Humans possess a unique ability for reflection and planning, which he terms “self-transcendence,” a key aspect of the soul.

Karma

• Karma embodies the continuity of actions, linking past effects with future changes. It is a principle of continuity rather than a system of reward and punishment. 
• Karma has two aspects: retrospective, connecting us to the past, and prospective, allowing for creative freedom. Although past karmas shape our actions and character, we retain the freedom to act and create new potentials. 

Freedom and Self-Determination

• Free will involves actions based on self-determination, where an individual chooses according to the whole nature of the self. 
• True freedom is realized when an individual uses their entire nature to explore possibilities and selects one that aligns with their whole being.

Human Beings as Relatively Free

• There is no complete freedom in human actions; only God is absolutely free. The self becomes absolutely free only when it becomes co-extensive with one’s whole being.
• Human beings are only relatively free. All our actions are determined by some external goals or ends in view, and they are also governed by our past. Therefore, no action is absolutely free. There is a continuity of the past in the present, and the present conditions the future.
• Radhakrishnan opposes the view of predestination, in which God is the sovereign who acts without law or principle. For him, life is a gracious gift from God, who expresses His sovereignty through law.

Salvation

• Radhakrishnan believes in the simultaneous salvation of all rather than individual salvation. Since God created the world, He must stay separate from the Absolute as long as the world exists. 
• Thus, the world cannot end if even one soul is unsaved.

Integration and Ultimate Unity

• The highest unity in an individual is reached when life aligns with one supreme purpose: to become ‘God.’
• Through meditation and ethical living, individuals overcome narrow self-interest and achieve spiritual universalism. When all selves unite with ‘God,’ the world fulfills its destiny.
• Ultimate unity with the ‘Absolute’ brings freedom from rebirth, cessation of worldly existence, and eternal oneness with ‘Saccidananda.’

Religious and Political Thought

• Universal Religion: Radhakrishnan advocates for a ‘Universal Religion,’ where all religions contribute to each other’s growth. 
• Authentic religion is described as “the wisdom of love that redeems suffering man,” focusing on ‘Inner Realization’ rather than dogmas or rituals.
• Secularism: He dreamed of a secular India/India as secular nation. Secularism can’t reject religion. Secularism is an attitude of respect for all religious faith or anything, which human beings hold as sacred. It is based on the sanctity of individuals. 
• Democracy: Democracy aims to create a ‘just society’ by valuing diversity and respecting each person as sacred.

Educational Philosophy

• He firmly believed in the religious virtues but he emphasized that religion and science are not contradictory, both seek truth and for the well being of humanity.

Meaning of education

• Education, to be complete, must be humane; it must include not only the training of the intellect but also the refinement of the heart and the discipline of the spirit. 
• Education should aim not only at gaining facts and knowledge but also at achieving wisdom and truth. 
• He said, ‘Education should be men-making and society-making.

Aims of education

• The philosophy of Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan was Advaita Vedanta, so the main aim of education was the upliftment of the spirit in coordination with the material world to find the ultimate truth. 
• He emphasized the holistic development of children through education. 
• Character building should also be a primary aim of education.

Curriculum

• Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan emphasized life-centered education, focusing on creativity and logical thinking. The NEP-2020 supports this approach. 
• To promote physical and social development, the curriculum should include games, physical exercise, yoga, and activities like NCC, NSS, and social welfare.

Methods of teaching : 

• Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, in his report for the University Education Commission, recommended teaching methods that maximize learning, foster lifelong learning, and create positive change in life. These methods include:
  • Teaching through Discussion
  • Meditation
  • Textbook Method
  • Seminar
  • Learning by Doing
• He also advocated for the use of Information Communication Technology (ICT) in the classroom and recommended that the medium of instruction be the mother tongue of the children.

Discipline

• Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan believed that discipline is a personal matter and should come from within. He emphasized self-discipline, which can be nurtured through yoga and spiritual activities. 
• He thought that good character leads to good discipline and that character building should be a primary aim of education. 
• Radhakrishnan valued personality development over mere intellectual knowledge and saw character as crucial to one’s destiny. 
• While technical skills are important, he believed that bent of mind, attitude of reason, spirit of democracy are essential for responsible citizenship.

Women’s Education

• “No society can progress satisfactorily with the backwardness of women. If women are uneducated, society will remain uneducated.”

Radhakrishnan‘s Quotes

• The end-product of education should be a free creative man, who can battle against historical circumstances and adversities of nature.
• A life of joy and happiness is possible only on the basis of knowledge and science.
• The true teachers are those who help us think for ourselves.
• Tolerance is the homage that the finite mind pays to the inexhaustibility of the infinite.
• When we think we know we cease to learn.
• Knowledge gives us power; love gives us fullness.
• Discontent with the actual is the necessary precondition of every moral change and spiritual rebirth.
• The worst sinner has a future, even as the greatest saint has had a past. No one is as good or bad as he imagines.
• True religion is a revolutionary force: it is an inveterate enemy of oppression, privilege, and injustice.

Amartya Sen

Capability Approach

• Amartya Sen’s ethical framework is centered around the capability approach, a revolutionary perspective in evaluating human well-being. 
• This approach shifts the focus from traditional economic metrics, such as income or wealth, to a more comprehensive assessment based on people’s real freedoms and abilities to achieve valuable outcomes in life.

Core Concepts:

Functionings:

• Functionings represent the various things a person can do or be, reflecting the different aspects of a person’s life. They range from basic elements like being well-nourished, healthy, and educated to more complex elements such as self-respect, social recognition, and political participation.
• For instance, being able to live a long life, being literate, or participating in the community are examples of functionings.

Capabilities:

• Capabilities refer to the actual freedom or opportunity to achieve various functionings. They represent the real opportunities that people have to lead the kind of lives they value.
• A key example Sen uses is the comparison between a fasting monk and a starving child. Although both do not eat, their capabilities differ significantly: the monk has the freedom to choose fasting, while the child does not.

Comparison with Other Ethical Theories:

Utilitarianism:

• Sen argues that utilitarian thinking can lead to policies that benefit the majority but neglect or even harm the marginalized, as seen in some development projects that prioritize economic growth over the well-being of vulnerable communities.

John Rawls’ Liberalism:

• Rawls’ theory of justice prioritizes individual rights and aims to balance efficiency with justice.
• Rawls’ approach focuses on ensuring that societal structures provide fair opportunities and protect individual rights, but it operates under the assumption that individuals have relatively equal capacities to take advantage of these opportunities.
• Sen points out that individuals vary greatly in terms of personal characteristics (such as health, age, and abilities) and the social environments they live in, which means that equal resources do not necessarily translate into equal capabilities.

Human Diversity and Inequality:

• Sen emphasizes that human beings differ widely in personal characteristics (e.g., health, age, gender) and the environments they live in. These differences impact how resources like income and wealth are converted into meaningful capabilities.
• This can result in the needs of disadvantaged groups being inadequately addressed or relegated to issues of charity rather than justice.

Focus on Individual Agency:

• Sen’s capability approach calls for a focus on expanding people’s real freedoms rather than merely increasing economic growth or wealth.
• Policies should be designed to enhance people’s capabilities, particularly those of the most vulnerable, by addressing the specific barriers they face.
• This approach promotes a more inclusive and equitable society, where everyone has the opportunity to achieve their full potential.

Dayanand Saraswati

Reforms

Religious Reforms:

• Opposition to Idol Worship: Dayanand criticized idol worship and ritualistic practices, promoting a return to the monotheistic and formless conception of God as per the Vedas.
• Polytheism and Mythology: He rejected polytheistic practices and the myths of Indian mythology, advocating for a more rational approach to religion based on the Vedic texts.
• Dayanand brought an uncompromising revolution in the field of religion. He told that inner purity is essential for spiritual development. Religion, to a great extent, was to regulate the body, mind and spirit of a man. So, religion, truth, purity, emancipation, law, moral conduct were synonymous to him.

Opposition to Caste System and Untouchability

• Varna System: Dayanand reinterpreted the caste system as a social and occupational division rather than a rigid, hereditary hierarchy.
  • As per the doctrines of guna, karma and swabhava, the society was divided into different varnas like the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Sudras with their respective occupation. 
  • He argued that all men are equal and that caste distinctions were not divinely ordained.
• Untouchability: He condemned untouchability as inhumane and unsupported by Vedic teachings.

Women’s Rights and Reforms

• Opposition to Child Marriage and Widowhood: Dayanand Saraswati was vocally against the practices of child marriage and enforced widowhood, which he believed lacked Vedic sanction.
• Proposed Reforms: To address these issues, he suggested the concept of ‘nigopa,’ a form of non-permanent cohabitation for widows and widowers, and later advocated for the remarriage of widows, which was a progressive stance for his time.
• Women’s Education: Dayanand emphasized the importance of educating girls and opposed child marriage. He believed that an educated woman was essential for societal progress.
• Property Rights: Advocated for women’s rights to property and opposed practices like child marriage and polygamy.

Educational Reforms:

• Importance of Education: Dayanand saw education as crucial for the prosperity of India (Aryavarta). He envisioned an education system rooted in moral and religious foundations, accessible to all classes of men and women.
• Educational Content: His ideal education system would include subjects such as grammar, philosophy, Vedas, sciences, medicine, music, and art. He emphasized the role of the state in providing compulsory education to awaken the nation.
• Gurukuls: Established to impart Vedic knowledge and promote education.
• DAV Institutions: Posthumously, Dayanand’s followers established the Dayanand Anglo Vedic (DAV) institutions to continue his educational vision. The first DAV High School was founded in Lahore in 1886.

Political Ideas

• His approach to interpreting the Vedas was distinct from traditional methods, focusing on their relevance to contemporary issues.
• Integration of Morality and Politics: For Dayanand, politics was inseparable from morality. He argued for the guidance of political leaders by spiritual leaders, ensuring that political actions aligned with moral and spiritual principles.

Theory of State

• Dayanand emphasized that the state’s role extends beyond secular and material welfare. It should aim to fulfill the fourfold objectives of human life: religion, material prosperity, enjoyment, and salvation.
• The state should guide its activities to help individuals achieve freedom from worldly bondage.

Form of Government

• Opposition to Autocracy: Dayanand opposed the concentration of power in a single individual. He criticized autocratic rule for its potential to overshadow others and lead to partiality and selfishness.
• Support for Republicanism: While acknowledging the need for a president to represent state unity, Dayanand advocated for a form of republicanism where the right to rule comes from the people. He integrated this with the divine right theory found in Dharma Shastras.

The Three Assemblies

• Dayanand proposed that the three assemblies (political, educational, and religious) should work harmoniously to create and uphold good laws. 

Rule of Law

• Primacy of Law: Dayanand placed the law above any individual ruler, considering it the true king and protector. He emphasized that the law should maintain order and justice, and that improper administration of law could lead to the ruler’s downfall.
• Judicial Equality: He opposed having separate courts for kings and high officers. He believed that even kings should be judged by the same laws as everyone else, and that punishments should be even stricter for them if they acted unjustly.

Functions of Government

• Role as Community Agent: Dayanand saw the government as the agent of the community, responsible for providing security and promoting the highest aims of human life. He supported private property rights and recognized the challenges posed by wealth inequality.
• Military Strength: He stressed the importance of maintaining a strong army to safeguard the state’s independence and security.
• Welfare Responsibilities: The government should support individuals unable to earn a livelihood due to age, infirmity, or youth, including the families of deceased officers.

Arya Samaj

• Purpose: The Arya Samaj was established to reform Hinduism, moving away from what Dayanand Saraswati saw as fictitious beliefs and practices. The motto “Krinvan to Vishvam Aryam” (Make this world noble) reflects the Samaj’s goal of elevating human society through noble principles.
• Democratic Principles: Dayanand extended democratic principles to the Arya Samaj’s organizational structure, advocating for a decentralized polity with the village as the basic unit.
• Main Tenets of Arya Samaj
  1. God is the ultimate source of all true knowledge. 
  2. One should always be ready to accept truth and to renounce untruth.
  3. Ethical Justification: All acts should be performed in accordance with Dharma that is, after deliberating what is right and wrong.
  4. Universal Good: The Samaj aims to promote the physical, spiritual, and social welfare of all individuals.
  5. Our conduct towards all should be guided by love, righteousness and justice.
  6. Dispelling Ignorance: We should dispel Avidya (ignorance) and promote Vidya (knowledge).
  7. Collective Well-being: One’s own good should be sought through the betterment of society as a whole.
  8. Societal Rules: Individuals should follow societal rules that promote collective well-being while retaining personal freedoms.

Raja Ram Mohan Roy

Humanism and Social Justice

• Abolition of Sati: Roy’s advocacy for the abolition of Sati exemplifies his commitment to human dignity and social justice. He viewed Sati as a brutal practice that violated the sanctity of human life.
• Women’s Rights: Roy’s efforts to improve the status of women, including his support for their right to education and property, demonstrated his belief in gender equality and social reform.
• Opposition to Caste Discrimination: Roy’s opposition to the caste system was rooted in his belief in the fundamental equality of all human beings. He worked to dismantle caste-based discrimination and promote social equality.

Religious Tolerance and Rationalism

• Brahmo Samaj:The Brahmo Samaj emphasized rational spirituality and rejected idol worship.
• Critique of Idolatry: Roy’s criticism of idol worship was rooted in his belief that true spirituality should be guided by reason and moral principles rather than ritualistic practices.

Ethical Education

• Roy emphasized that education should not only impart knowledge but also develop moral character. He wanted an educational system that nurtured ethical values.

Political and Economic Ethics

• Critique of Colonialism: Roy criticized colonial policies that exploited Indian resources and impoverished its people. He advocated for greater self-governance and fair treatment of Indians by the British.
• Economic Justice: Roy condemned oppressive practices of Bengali zamindars and demanded fixation of minimum rents. He called for a reduction of export duties on Indian goods abroad and the abolition of the East India Company’s trading rights.

B.R AMBEDKAR

Practical Purpose over Speculation

• Ambedkar’s philosophy was rooted in practical concerns, focusing on real-world issues rather than speculative ideas.

Social Reform Precedes Political Reform

• Ambedkar believed that social reform must come before political reform, emphasizing the need to address social inequalities first.

Critique of the Caste System

• He vehemently criticized the caste system, arguing that it could not serve as the basis of a just society.
• He believed that the caste system should be rejected as it did not contribute to economic efficiencies or the improvement of the race.
• The caste system, in Ambedkar’s view, perpetuated social inequalities and hindered the progress of society.

Social Thought

Ideal of One Value for All

• Ambedkar envisioned a society where every individual, regardless of gender, has equal value in political, economic, and social life.
• This ideal is to be achieved by eliminating religious, social, and economic exploitation.

Equality through State Socialism

• The core of Ambedkar’s political thought is the equality of all individuals, which he believed could be achieved through state socialism within a constitutional and parliamentary democracy.

Essence of Socialism

• Ambedkar’s socialism emphasizes the absence of exploitation in any form.
• Socialism encompasses not just economic equality but also social and political equality.
• The caste system in Hinduism, along with untouchability, is seen as the primary obstacle to socialism in India.

Advocacy for a New Order: 

• He advocated for a new order based on the principle of “one man (woman), one value, one vote.”
• Ambedkar believed that this ideal could be realized through socialism, parliamentary democracy, and constitutional means.

Desire for Social Democracy

• Ambedkar expressed in Parliament his desire to establish a social democracy that would address the economic, social, educational, and cultural needs of the people.
• He defined social democracy as a way of life that recognizes liberty, equality, and fraternity as fundamental principles.
• He emphasized that these principles form a “union of trinity,” meaning that separating one from the other would defeat the purpose of democracy.

Origin of Caste and Untouchability

• Ambedkar traced the origin of untouchability to conflicts between settled and nomadic tribes.
• Those defeated in these conflicts became the “broken men (women),” who were later marginalized and turned into untouchables (Dalits) due to the rise of Vedic Brahmanism.

Annihilation of the Caste System

• The annihilation of caste is a crucial element in Ambedkar’s socio-philosophical framework.
• He argued that caste cannot be eradicated merely by abolishing sub-sects or encouraging inter-caste dining.
• Proposed Solutions
  • Immediate Remedy: Ambedkar proposed intermarriage as an immediate means to break down caste barriers.
  • Fundamental Reform: He believed that the fundamental solution lies in social reform preceding political reform and in denying the authority of the shastras (Hindu scriptures).
• Critique of Hinduism
  • Ambedkar was critical of Hinduism, arguing that it perpetuates casteism and social inequality.
  • He famously protested against Hinduism by burning the Manusmriti, a key text that upholds the caste system, in a public meeting.

Political Philosophy

• Rights Protection: Ambedkar believed that rights are protected not merely by laws but by the social and moral conscience of society.
• He asserted that a democratic form of government requires a democratic form of society.
• His ideas influenced the Constitution’s commitment to social justice, equality, and democracy.

Role of the State

• Security and Welfare: Ambedkar believed the state should provide security against internal disorder and external aggression, and it should prioritize the welfare of its members.
• People-Centric State: state is created by the people and exists to serve their needs.
• Human Origination: Ambedkar rejected the notion of the state as a divine entity, viewing it instead as a human organization with the purpose of protecting individual rights.
• State as a Means, Not an End: He maintained that the state is not an end in itself but a means to further human goals and ensure a better future for society.

One State, One Language

• Language as a Unifier: Ambedkar advocated for the “One State, One Language” formula, believing it could help resolve radical and cultural conflicts.
• Promotion of Hindi: He encouraged the adoption of Hindi as a common language to foster unity and a harmonious culture across India.
• Concerns about Regionalism: Ambedkar warned that dividing states based on language could fuel regionalism and weaken national integrity, making it difficult for people to view one another as equals.

Idea of Freedom: Beyond Political Freedom

• Ambedkar’s idea of freedom differed from that of Gandhi and Nehru, as he emphasized the importance of both political and social freedom.
• For Ambedkar, political freedom was meaningless without accompanying social and economic freedom, particularly for those who were unjustly exploited.

Meaning of Democracy

• Ambedkar defined democracy not just as a form of government but as a way of life, characterized by associated living and shared experiences.
• He believed the essence of democracy lay in ensuring equal rights for all individuals.
• For him, democracy meant the absence of slavery, caste, and coercion, emphasizing the importance of social relationships and a connected life among people.

Concept of Human Person

Individual Recognition in Social Order

• He argued that a good social order must recognize the individual within society, as this collective recognition leads to the well-being of the community.
• Without acknowledging the individual, society loses its meaning.
• A good society should prioritize treating each person as an individual first, respecting them simply because they are human.

Respect Beyond Caste and Class

• Ambedkar believed that respecting the individual, free from caste or class distinctions, is sacred.
• Human society should be built on the foundations of freedom (liberty), equality, and fraternity.

Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity

• Liberty: Emphasizes the inviolability of the human person.
• Equality: Insists that every individual has the right to be treated as an equal and respected as a full member of society, regardless of their achievements.
• Fraternity: Involves treating others with reverence, love, dignity, and a desire for unity with fellow human beings.
• Ambedkar highlighted that these three values are interconnected and essential for upholding the human person as a complete individual in society.

His Attitude to Religion

Intellectual and Socio-Political Approach

• Unlike Gandhi, Ambedkar’s approach to religion was not spiritual but intellectual and socio-political.
• He viewed religion as an integral part of one’s social life, connected to dignity and pride.

Religion’s Role in Society

• For Ambedkar, religion should address societal problems and promote community living.
• He agreed with Marxists that false religion could be used as an ideology to oppress marginalized groups like the Dalits.

Critique of Hinduism

• Ambedkar was critical of Hinduism for perpetuating Varnashrama Dharma and untouchability, often justified as divinely ordained and unchangeable.

Decision on Conversion

• He appreciated Buddhism for being Indian and not primarily god-oriented, focusing on cultural rather than purely religious dimensions.
• Ambedkar considered Buddhism’s social ideals the best for promoting peaceful social living.
• He admired Buddha’s method, which was based on love, persuasion, and moral teaching, as a means to foster social harmony.

Ambedkar’s Quotes

• “Cultivation of mind should be the ultimate aim of human existence.”
• “Indifferentism is the worst kind of disease that can affect people.”
• “Equality may be a fiction but nonetheless one must accept it as a governing principle.”
• “I like the religion that teaches liberty, equality and fraternity.”
• “A just society is that society in which ascending sense of reverence and descending sense of contempt is dissolved into the creation of a compassionate society.”
• “Slavery does not merely mean a legalised form of subjection.It means a state of society in which some men are forced to accept from others the purposes which control their conduct.”
• “Knowledge is the foundation of a man’s life.”
• “The Constitution is not a mere lawyers document, it is a vehicle of Life, and its spirit is always the spirit of Age.”
• “Unlike a drop of water which loses its identity when it joins the ocean, man does not lose his being in the society in which he lives. Man’s life is independent. He is born not for the development of society alone, but for the development of himself too.”
• “If I find the constitution being misused, I shall be the first to burn it.”
• “If you believe in living a respectable life, you believe in self-help which is the best help”.
• “I measure the progress of a community by the degree of progress which women have achieved.”
• “Men are mortal. So are ideas. An idea needs propagation as much as a plant needs watering. Otherwise, both will wither and die.”
• “The relationship between husband and wife should be one of closest friends.”
• “A great man is different from an eminent one in that he is ready to be the servant of society.”
• “Law and order are the medicine of the body politic and when the body politic gets sick, medicine must be administered.”
• “Democracy is not merely a form of Government…It is essentially an attitude of respect and reverence towards fellowmen.”