Chemical and Biological Weapons

Chemical and Biological Weapons pose a serious threat to global security and human survival. In the field of Technology, these weapons represent some of the most dangerous advancements, capable of causing mass destruction through toxic chemicals or deadly pathogens. Understanding their development and impact is crucial for prevention and control.

Chemical and biological warfare (CBW) involves using chemicals, bacteria, viruses, toxins, or poisons as weapons to harm or kill adversaries.

While chemical warfare is focused on the deployment of toxic agents to attack or incapacitate enemies, biological warfare uses living organisms or their by-products to inflict damage.
The means of delivering these substances, like missiles, bombs, or sprays, are termed chemical and biological weapons.
Effect:
- Individual and collective loss.
- Serious damage to human life, agriculture and environment.
- The potential for rapidly spreading pandemics and long-term health impacts.

Chemical Weapons

Chemical weapons are a type of weapon of mass destruction (WMD) that use chemical substances to harm, kill, or incapacitate people, animals, or plants. These weapons are dangerous because they are invisible, can spread quickly, and cause widespread suffering.

Chemical weapons are typically delivered via artillery shells, missiles, bombs, or aerosol sprays.
Chlorine and phosgene are gases, but other agents often exist as liquid droplets or solid particles.

Defense Against Chemical Weapons

Protective Gear: Gas masks, chemical suits, and impermeable clothing.
Antidotes: For example, atropine counteracts the effects of nerve agents.

Historical Use of Chemical Weapons

WWI (1915): First chemical weapon use (chlorine gas by Germany).
→ 1917: Mustard gas used by Germany.
WWII: Germany used Zyklon-B gas for genocide (not on battlefields).

1960s: Non-lethal agents used for riot control.
→ Vietnam War: Herbicides (Agent Orange) used to destroy enemy cover.
1980s: Iraq used chemical weapons in Iran-Iraq war and against Kurds.
Terrorist Attacks: Use by groups like Aum Shinrikyo in Japan (1995 Tokyo Subway attack using Sarin gas).

Recent Examples:

The assassination of Kim Jong-nam, half-brother of North Korean leader Kim Jong-un, in 2017 using VX nerve agent at Kuala Lumpur airport.
Syria Civil War (2011–Present):
- The Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) confirmed several instances of chemical weapon use, including the 2013 Ghouta attack (Sarin gas).
- Allegations of chlorine gas use in Syria’s Douma (2018).
2020 Alexei Navalny Incident: Russian opposition leader Alexei Navalny was poisoned with Nerve agent Novichok, sparking international condemnation.
Recent allegations against Russia regarding the use of Chloropicrin against Ukrainian forces.

International Response

1899 Hague Convention: Restricted chemical weapons use.
1925 Geneva Protocol: Banned first use of chemical agents.
1960s-1980s: UN chemical disarmament efforts.
1990: US and Soviet Union stop production of chemical weapons.
1992: Chemical Weapons Convention ratified by UN (effective 1997).

Ethical and Environmental Implication :

Humanitarian Impact: These weapons often harm civilians indiscriminately and leave long-term effects on survivors.
Environmental Damage: Herbicides and other agents have caused widespread deforestation, soil degradation, and water contamination.

Challenges and Future Threats:

Old Weapons: Old CW stockpiles pose risks due to deterioration.
Security Concerns: Non-state actors and advances in drone technology may lead to novel dissemination methods.
Political Challenges: Adhering to international treaties like the Chemical Weapons Convention requires transparency and cooperation, which can be challenging in politically sensitive regions.
Complex Process: Destroying chemical weapons needs advanced facilities and technology, which are expensive and complex.

Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), 1997

History:

Built on the Geneva Protocol of 1925 (bans use, not possession).
Opened for signature in 1993 → Entry into force in 1997.

The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) is a treaty that bans the use, production, stockpiling, and transfer of chemical weapons and their precursors, with limited exceptions (e.g., research, medical, pharmaceutical use).

It came into force on 29 April 1997
It is managed by the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW).
Prohibits: Use, production, and transfer of chemical weapons → Destruction of existing stockpiles.
Member States: 193 countries, including Syria (since 2013), and Palestine (2018).
Exceptions:

Israel: Signed but not ratified
Non-signatories: Egypt, North Korea, South Sudan

Toxic Chemicals (Not Listed as Weapons)

Chlorine gas: Highly toxic but used for peaceful purposes → Not listed as a chemical weapon
White Phosphorus: Toxic but legal under CWC if used for non-toxic purposes (e.g., military use for illumination, not as a weapon

Key points of the Convention

Prohibition:
- Chemical weapons production and use
- Destruction of chemical weapons and production facilities
- Assistance in the case of chemical weapons use

International Cooperation:
- Facilitate peaceful use of chemistry in relevant areas
- Controlled substances (production, transfer, and use regulated by OPCW)

CWC Treaty Deadlines and Phases Reduction Phases

Phase I: 1% by April 2000
Phase II: 20% by April 2002 (destroy empty munitions, precursor chemicals, and weapons systems)
Phase III: 45% by April 2004
Phase IV: 100% by April 2007 (no extensions beyond April 2012)

Destruction Progress (as of 2019)

97.51% of the declared 72,304 metric tonnes of chemical agents destroyed.
57% of munitions and containers destroyed.
Countries Completing Destruction
Albania, India, Iraq, Libya, Syria, US, and South Korea have completed destruction.

Controlled Substances (3 Categories):

Schedule 1: Chemicals used primarily for chemical weapons → Limited production, maximum 1 tonne per country. (e.g., sulfur mustard, nerve agents)
Schedule 2: Chemicals with limited non-weapon uses → Must declare manufacture. (e.g., thiodiglycol)
Schedule 3: Chemicals with wide civilian use → Must declare if production >30 tonnes/year. (e.g., phosgene)

Verification:

OPCW Inspections of chemical weapon facilities and industry.
Assistance in case of chemical weapons use.

Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW)

Headquarters: The Hague, Netherlands
Mandates:
- Verification of compliance with CWC obligations
- Destruction of chemical weapons and their production facilities
- Inspections and investigations into chemical weapons use
2013 Nobel Peace Prize: Awarded to OPCW for defining chemical weapons as a taboo under international law.

India’s Stand:

Actively promotes disarmament and peaceful use of chemical technologies.
India became one of the original signatories of the CWC on January 14, 1993, and ratified it on September 2, 1996.
In June 1997, India declared a stockpile of 1,044 tonnes of sulfur mustard.
By 2009, India had completely destroyed its chemical weapons stockpile, becoming the third country after South Korea and Albania to do so.

India’s Commitment to Non-Proliferation

Legislative Measures: To comply with the CWC, India enacted the Chemical Weapons Convention Act in 2000, establishing the National Authority for the Chemical Weapons Convention (NACWC) to oversee the implementation of the treaty’s provisions.
International Cooperation: In December 2024, India contributed €10,000 to support OPCW assistance activities.

Recent Developments in Chemical Weapon Control

OPCW Investigations: Ongoing investigations into Syria’s alleged non-compliance with the CWC.
- Pressure on rogue states like North Korea to join the convention.
Strengthening Enforcement: The United Nations Security Council works closely with OPCW to address violations.
Technological Advancements: Enhanced forensic techniques to trace the origin of chemical agents.

Biological Weapons

Biological weapons (or germ warfare) are living organisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi, etc.) or their toxins, engineered to cause harm to humans, animals, or crops.
They can spread infectious diseases or produce toxins that are lethal or incapacitating.

Characteristics of Biological Weapons

Invisibility: BW agents are difficult to detect.
Infectivity: They can spread rapidly among populations.
Dual-use nature: Many biological agents can have peaceful uses but can also be adapted for military purposes.

Types:

Bio-weapons often involve microorganisms like bacteria, viruses, spores, and toxins, categorized into four primary groups:

Bacteria: Causes diseases like anthrax, tularemia, plague, typhus.
Viruses: Can cause encephalitis, smallpox (especially feared after routine vaccination ceased in 1979).
Biotoxins: Poisons from organisms, e.g., ricin (from castor bean) and botulinum toxin (from Clostridium bacteria).
Fungi: E.g., potato blight and wheat smut, used to destroy crops.

Historical Examples of Biological Warfare

200 BC: Hannibal used poisonous snakes on enemy ships.
1155: Emperor Barbarossa poisoned water wells in Italy.
1346: Mongols launched plague-infected bodies over city walls in Crimea.
1763: The English gave smallpox-infected blankets to Native Americans.
1940: Japan dropped plague-infested fleas in China.
World War I: Germany infected horses with glanders in Romania.
World War II: Japan tested biological weapons on Chinese civilians and prisoners.
2001: Letters containing anthrax spores were sent to U.S. Senators and journalists.

Pandemic Threats and Bio-Warfare:

Pandemics, such as the Spanish Flu of 1918, can arise naturally or through deliberate biological weapon release.
The Threat of Bioterrorism: The 2001 anthrax attack following 9/11 demonstrated the real-world threat of biological weapons. Letters containing anthrax spores caused five deaths and numerous infections, leading to a massive federal response.

Dangers and Risks of Biological Weapons

Massive casualties: Can result in widespread infections, death, or long-term health effects.
Pandemics: Some pathogens could potentially trigger global pandemics if weaponized.
Psychological impact: The threat of biological warfare creates panic and disrupts societies.
Challenges in detection and defense: Unlike chemical weapons, biological agents are harder to detect and defend against.

International Conventions and Protocols

1925 Geneva Protocol

Prohibited the use of chemical and biological weapons in war, though it lacked strong enforcement measures.

Biological Weapons Convention (1972)

Full Name: Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on Their Destruction
Objective: Bans the development, production, stockpiling, acquisition, transfer, and use of biological weapons.
Entered into Force: 26 March 1975
Signatories: 187 states (as of July 2024)
First treaty to ban a category of WMDs (Weapons of Mass Destruction).
Treaty’s preamble: Biological weapons are “repugnant to the conscience of mankind.”

History:

1925 Geneva Protocol – Banned use of biological weapons (not possession or development).
1969 – U.S. ended offensive biological weapons programs.
1972 BWC Negotiation – U.S. and Soviet Union agreed to separate chemical and biological weapons issues.
March 1975 – BWC entered into force.

Key Articles:

Article I: Prohibits the development and acquisition of biological weapons.
Article II: Requires the destruction of biological weapon stocks and related equipment.
Article III: Bans the transfer of biological weapons to any nation.
Article VI: Allows for complaints to be lodged with the UN Security Council about violations.
Article X: Promotes the peaceful use of biological agents for research.

Challenges to the BWC:

Technological Risks:
- Advances in biotechnology (e.g., CRISPR, synthetic biology, AI, robotics) may lead to the development of biological weapons.
- Emerging technologies can enhance weaponization but also improve pandemic preparedness.
- Synthetic biology & genomic technologies blur lines between peaceful & hostile use.
Verification Difficulties:
- Biological weapons can be produced in small quantities.
- Dual-use technology (e.g., vaccines, medical therapies) complicates monitoring.
- Agents can be destroyed quickly, hindering inspections.
Financial Issues:
- Funding shortfalls delayed meetings.
- Working Capital Fund: Voluntary contributions to ensure program continuity.

UNSC Resolution 1540 (2004)

Adopted: April 28, 2004
Purpose: Prevent WMDs (nuclear, chemical, biological) from reaching non-state actors, including terrorists.

Key Points

Prohibition: No state support for non-state actors seeking WMDs.
National Laws: Enforce laws to criminalize WMD proliferation.
Material Security: Secure sensitive materials (e.g., enriched uranium, anthrax).
Export Controls: Monitor and control dual-use technologies (e.g., centrifuges).

India’s stand on Biological Weapon

In October 2002, President A.P.J. Abdul Kalam emphasized India’s position, stating, “India will not make biological weapons. It is cruel to human beings.”

Key Aspects of India’s Approach:

Commitment to the BWC: India ratified the BWC on July 15, 1974
No biological weapons program: India maintains a policy of non-possession and non-use of biological weapons.
Biodefense Capabilities: The Defense Research and Development Organization (DRDO) plays a pivotal role in this area.
Bioterrorism Preparedness: India has taken steps to enhance its disease surveillance network and monitoring capabilities.
Regulatory Measures: India controls the transfer of biological agents and related dual-use items through Section 13 of the Weapons of Mass Destruction and their Delivery Systems (WMD) Act, 2005.

Australia Group

An informal forum of 43 countries (Including EU) to employ licensing measures to restrict exports of specific chemicals, biological agents, and dual-use manufacturing facilities and equipment that could facilitate chemical or biological weapons (CBWs) proliferation.
All states participating in the Australia Group are parties to the CWC and the BWC
Its formation was prompted by Iraq’s use of chemical weapons during the Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988).
India joined the Australia Group (AG) on 19 January 2018.
- membership would help “strengthen supply chain security in the dynamic industry fields of biotechnology and chemicals”, along with meeting non-proliferation objectives. Place in AG will strengthen the case for NSG membership.
- The group’s success, however, has been limited. It cannot levy sanctions or other punitive measures against nations that acquire chemical weapons or against group members that choose to ignore the organization’s controls.