Chapter 4: Challenges before Indian Society - RajRAS

In sociology, Challenges before Indian Society encompass issues like social inequality, poverty, and environmental concerns that impact the nation’s progress. Understanding these challenges helps in shaping policies for a more inclusive and sustainable society.

Dowry

The Dowry Prohibition Act 1961 defined “Dowry” as “any property or valuable security given or agreed to be given directly or indirectly by one party to a marriage to the other party in marriage or by the parent of either party to a marriage or by any other person, to either party to the marriage or any other person.”

Previous Years Questions

Year	Question	Marks
2023	Demerits of Dowry	2 M
2016	Explain the consequences of gender inequality in India.	5 M

NCRB: 6000 dowry death cases registered in 2022(4.5% decline).
In August 2023, the Calcutta High Court in India said that women have been misusing Section 498A of the Indian Penal Code (IPC) to commit “legal terrorism“.
Dowry is not only illegal but immoral and a social evil also.
Traditionally the practice started as giving share to daughters from ancestral property, but with time grooms and their families took it
as their right which gradually worsened the practice as it became a prestige issue for both bride and groom side.

Causes of Dowry

Historical Inheritance : Dowry stems from ancient practices where wealth was passed to daughters at marriage.
Status Symbol : Dowry reflects a family’s social status.
Women’s Financial Dependency : Women’s economic reliance on men fuels dowry demands. And the woman being considered a liability, so the shift of liability demands compensation in form of dowry
Securing a Good Groom : Dowry is used to attract a desirable groom and provide security for the bride.
Consumerism and Materialism : Growing material desires increase dowry expectations.
Social Acceptance and validation : Dowry is perpetuated by deep-rooted social norms.
Lack of Education : Limited education sustains dowry practices.
Ineffectiveness of the Dowry Prohibition Act (1961)

Impacts of Dowry

Dowry-Related Violence : Dowry demands can lead to severe abuse, even death.
- Eg- Dr. Suhana suicide case (karela)
Economic Burden on Families : Dowry often drives families into debt and poverty.
Gender Discrimination and Female Infanticide : Dowry contributes to a preference for male children, leading to female infanticide.
- Eg: Haryana’s skewed sex ratio is partly due to dowry pressures,(daughters-financial burdens).
Delayed or Denied Marriages : Women may remain unmarried if their families can’t afford dowry.
Psychological Trauma : The pressure of dowry can lead to severe mental health issues.
- Eg. Vismaya case-2021(Kerala), took her own life after relentless dowry harassment from her husband and in-laws.
Perpetuation of Gender Inequality : Dowry reinforces gender inequality by treating women as financial burdens.
Results in notion of son metapreference
Negative Impact on Education : Families may prioritize dowry savings over educating daughters.
Dowry related abuse result in depressed children and ultimately an unhealthy society
Poor families get into debt cycle in arrangement for dowry that leads to suicides, poor mental health, poor girl education.

Legal Provision

Dowry Prohibition Act (DPA), 1961:
- Cognizable and Non-Bailable: Dowry-related offenses are treated as serious crimes—cognizable, non-bailable, and non-compoundable.
- Dowry Prohibition Officers: The State Government can appoint officers to enforce the Act.
- Penalty for Giving/Taking Dowry: Minimum 5 years imprisonment and a fine of at least ₹15,000 or the dowry amount, whichever is greater.
- Penalty for Demanding Dowry: Minimum 6 months to 2 years imprisonment and a fine up to ₹10,000.
IPC 498A (Now BNS Section 85 & 86): Addresses cruelty by husband or relatives, including dowry harassment.
IPC 406 ()
IPC 304B – Dowry Death (Now Bhartiya nyaya sanhita BNS Section 80): Defines dowry death, with a minimum sentence of 7 years up to life imprisonment.
Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005:Provides legal protection to women facing domestic violence, including dowry-related abuse.

Suggestions

Bride: Empower women by providing educational and career opportunities to enhance their independence and reduce dowry dependence.
Groom: Cultivate a culture of integrity among grooms and their families by promoting dowry-free marriages and rejecting dowry demands. Need for change in the patriarchal mindset
Society: Lead community campaigns to challenge and change societal norms that perpetuate dowry practices, highlighting the negative impacts. Materialization of women ideology must be changed. “Dulhan hi dahej hai”
Laws: Ensuring enforceability of laws at the ground level such as the Dowry Prohibition Act (DPA), 1961
Freedom to choose a partner for both girl and boy.
Inter Caste marriages must be accepted and promoted.

Divorce

Divorce, also called the dissolution of marriage, is the legal process of ending a marriage.

Data

Economic survey 2018: Annual divorce rate of India is 1.1 per 1000 persons. India is witnessing a rise of 50% to 60% in divorce rates.
Shilpa Sailesh v Varun Sreenivasan case(2023) : Supreme Court can directly grant a divorce on grounds of ‘irretrievable breakdown of marriage’ under Article 142 of the Constitution.

Theories of Divorce

Fault Theory: One spouse must prove that the other has committed a wrongful act (e.g., adultery, cruelty, desertion) that justifies the divorce.
Mutual Consent Theory: Marriage can be dissolved by mutual consent.
Irretrievable Breakdown: The divorce can be taken by the spouse as a last resort i.e. when both of them are not able to live together again.

Grounds for Divorce

Under the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, Section 12 defines the grounds for divorce:

Any one of Aggrieved Spouse can approach: Adultery,Cruelty,Desertion,Conversion,Mental Disorder,Leprosy,Venereal Disease,Renunciation,Presumption of Death
Only wife can approach: Bigamy, Rape, Repudiation of marraige etc.

Reasons of Divorce

Lack of Communication: Poor communication can lead to misunderstandings, unresolved conflicts, and a weakening emotional connection.
Infidelity: Extramarital affairs break trust and often make reconciliation difficult.
Financial Problems: Disagreements over money, debt, or financial management can create significant stress in a marriage.
Lack of Intimacy: A decline in emotional or physical intimacy can cause partners to feel disconnected and dissatisfied.
Constant Conflict and Growing Apart: Frequent arguments, unresolved conflicts, and partners growing in different directions over time can erode the foundation of the marriage.
Unrealistic Expectations: When expectations about marriage aren’t aligned with reality, it can lead to disappointment and frustration.
Substance Abuse and Domestic Abuse: Addiction or abusive behavior, whether physical, emotional, or psychological, can severely damage a marriage.
Cultural or Religious Differences and Family Interference: Conflicts stemming from differing beliefs or excessive interference from family can create significant challenges.
Impact of Western culture – nuclear family & single parenthood are in trend.

Impacts of divorce

Personal Impacts:
- Emotional Distress: Feelings of sadness, anger, or relief are common.
- Health Issues: Divorce-related stress can lead to sleep problems and other health concerns.
Social Impacts:
- Loss of Social Connections: Mutual friendships may be lost, and social isolation can occur.
- Stigma: Divorce may carry a social stigma in some communities.
- Degenerating social institutions like marriage, family society and others
- Disintegration of joint families into nuclear families.
- Decline in social values
Psychological Impacts:
- Mental Health Struggles: Increased risk of depression, anxiety, and reduced self-esteem.
- Grieving Process: Individuals often experience a mourning period similar to grieving a loss.
Impacts on Children:
- Emotional and Behavioral Issues: Children may feel confused, angry, or guilty, impacting their behavior and academics.
- Parent-Child Relationship: Custody changes can strain relationships with parents.
Economic Impacts:
- Financial Strain: Divorce often leads to reduced income and increased financial burden.
- Asset Division: Dividing assets and debts can create long-term financial instability.

Legal provisions

Section 13 (Hindu Marriage Act, 1955): Grounds for divorce among Hindus, such as adultery, cruelty, and desertion.
Section 27 (Special Marriage Act, 1954): Grounds for divorce for marriages
Article 142 : Empowers the Supreme Court to grant divorce in cases where it deems necessary to ensure complete justice, even if statutory conditions are not fully met.

Shayara Bano’ case 2017

In 2017, a Supreme Court five-judge bench declared the practice of instant triple talaq unconstitutional, urging the government to formulate legislation against it.

Significance of the Judgment:

Invalidation of Instant Triple Talaq
Promotion of Gender Equality: Safeguarding the right to equality under Article 14 — previously, a Muslim man could divorce his wife by uttering “talaq” three times, whereas women lacked this ability.
Empowerment of Muslim Women:
1. This practice was not recognized as an essential practice of Islam
2. court directed that such practices negatively affecting the welfare of citizens are not protected under Article 25.
Dignity of Women (Art 21): Emphasizing that gender equality and the dignity of women are non-negotiable principles.
International Impact — Aligning with numerous Islamic countries, such as Pakistan and Bangladesh, that have already prohibited this practice.

How divorce can be avoided( Suggestions)

Inculcation of moral values in private relationships especially family and marriage
Women empowerment and moral education to men counterpart.
Mutual family issues and ideological differences must be solved via dialogue and proper communication
Spending quality time together and giving respect to each other.
Commitment, patience, honesty, trust and appreciation must be maintained.
External influence must be managed example limits must be set for family and friends intervention.
Seeking help from marriage counsellors mentors or elders when needed.

Child Marriage

Previous Years Questions

Year	Question	Marks
2021	What is ‘Sharda Act’?	2 M
2016 Special	What do you understand by Child Marriage ?	2 M

Recent Data on Child Marriage

Lancet Global Health study(2023): One in Five girls and nearly one in six boys in India are still married below the legal age of marriage.
NHFS-5 Data: Rajasthan saw a 10% decline in child marriage over the last 5 years.

Lancet Data: The prevalence of child marriage decreased significantly from 494% to 223% between 1993 and 2021.
Unicef – one by third of world child marriages happen in India with about 15 lakh child brides
From 2005 to 15 there was a decline in child marriages from 47% to 27% Approximately.

History

Age of Consent Act, 1861: Established 10 years as the minimum age for sexual intercourse.
Rukhmabai Case: In 1884, Rukhmabai, married at 11 and living separately, was forced by the court to return to her husband or face imprisonment.
Phulmoni Dasi Case: In 1889, the death of 11-year-old Phulmoni Dasi after being raped by her 35-year-old husband spurred legal reforms.
Age of Consent Act, 1891:(Johnson Act)
- Raised the age of consent to 12 years for sexual intercourse, affecting both married and unmarried girls.
- Catalyzed by the suffering of Rukhmabai and Phulmoni Dasi.
Joshi Committee:
- Formed to recommend the age for marriage and consent.
- Advocated for uniform age limits: 14 for girls and 18 for boys.
- Reported in June 1929 and led to the Sarda Act.
Sarda Act, 1929:
- Also known as the Child Marriage Restraint Act.
- Set the marriageable age at 14 for girls and 18 for boys.
- Amended in 1978 to 18 for girls and 21 for boys.
- Named after sponsor Harbilas Sarda.
International Law:
- Various international conventions mandate minimum legal ages for marriage, including:
  - UN Convention on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage, and Registration of Marriages (1962)
  - UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979)
  - Beijing Declaration (1995)

Reasons of Child Marriage

Custom and Tradition: Early marriage is seen as a way to avoid higher dowry demands as girls age.
Poverty: Families marry off daughters to reduce financial burdens or settle debts.
Lack of Education: Limited access to education perpetuates ignorance about the harms of child marriage.Control Over Sexuality: Social norms push early marriage to control sexuality.
Weak Law Enforcement: Inadequate enforcement of laws allows the practice to persist.
Social Pressure: Communities often pressure families to conform to traditional practices.
Gender Inequality: Deep-seated gender biases prioritize marriage over education or personal development for girls.
Intergenerational Poverty: The cycle of poverty continues as child brides are often unable to break free from economic hardship, passing it on to the next generation.
Fear of Stigma: Families fear social stigma if daughters remain unmarried past a certain age.

Impact of Child Marriage

Ends Childhood : Forces children into adult responsibilities, disrupting their education and development.
Loss of Rights : Denies fundamental rights such as education, health, and protection.
Increased Domestic Violence : Raises vulnerability to abuse and violence due to lack of power and maturity.
Health Issues : Leads to complications from early pregnancy, malnutrition, and higher mortality rates and infant mortality rates. Eg. 10 low-birth-weight infants died at Murshidabad Medical College
Human Rights Violation : Violates basic human rights and personal freedoms.
Sexual and Gender-Based Violence : Recognized as a form of violence that enforces inequality and exploitation.
Mental Health Problems : Causes depression, anxiety, and other mental health issues due to trauma.
Negative Impact on Child Health : Results in poor health outcomes and developmental delays.
Population growth and ‘vicious cycle’ of poverty

Efforts by Government

Constitutional Provisions:

Article 21A: Ensures free, compulsory education, delaying marriage.
Article 15(3): Allows special provisions for child protection.

Legal Remedies:

Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006: Sets marriage age at 18 for girls and 21 for boys, criminalizing child marriage.
- Punishments for Child Marriage
  - Male Adult Marrying a Child (Section 9): A male adult over 18 years who marries a child faces rigorous imprisonment of up to 2 years, a fine up to ₹1 lakh, or both.
  - Solemnizing a Child Marriage (Section 10): Anyone who performs, conducts, directs, or abets a child marriage faces rigorous imprisonment of up to 2 years and a fine up to ₹1 lakh.
POCSO Act, 2012: Protects against sexual abuse, linked to child marriage.
Right to Education Act, 2009: Mandates education for children, discouraging early marriage.
Jaya Jaitley committee to recommend on changing girls marriage age to 21 years
In Seema versus Ashwini Kumar case supreme Court verdict that every marriage must be registered.

Government Initiatives:

Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao: Promotes girls’ education and well-being.
Kishori Shakti Yojana: Provides education and life skills for adolescent girls.
Conditional Cash Transfers: Offers financial incentives to delay marriage. → Mukhyamantri Kanyadan Yojna

Community Outreach:

Awareness Campaigns: Educate communities on child marriage laws and impacts.
Local Authorities: Train officials to prevent child marriages.
Community marriage incentives (Samuhik Vivah)

Raj govt:

CM rajshree yojana → To develop a positive attitude towards girl child
Rajasthan State Strategy and Action Plan for Prevention of Child Marriage 2017: It envisions creating a child marriage-free Rajasthan within a 10-year time frame.
Child marriage prohibition officers under PCMA-2006
Women policy 2021
Community awareness (Meena-raju and Gargi programs in schools)
7 Point program
- Safe Motherhood
- Reduction in IMR
- Population Stablization
- Prevention of Child marriages
- Retention of girls in schools at least up to class X
- Provide safety of create secure Environment for women
- Economic Empowerment of women by providing opportunities of self employment through SHGs

Corruption

“Corruption is the abuse of entrusted power for private gain.” – Transparency International

[Corruption = Monopoly + Discretion-Accountability] By 2nd ARC.

Previous Year Questions

Year	Question	Marks
2021	Define political corruption.	2 M
2013	What are the basic causes of corruption in Government agencies ?	2 M

Related Terms

Bribery: Offering, giving, receiving, or soliciting something of value to influence the actions of an official or other person in a position of power.
Embezzlement: Misappropriation of funds or property entrusted to one’s care.
Fraud: Deceptive practices designed to secure unfair or unlawful gain.
Extortion: Obtaining money, goods, or services through coercion or threats.
Nepotism: Favoritism granted to relatives or close friends, often by giving them jobs.
Cronyism: Favoritism shown to friends and associates without regard to their qualifications.
Patronage: Support, encouragement, or financial aid that an organization or individual bestows to another.
Graft: Acquisition of gain or advantage by dishonest or unfair means, especially through the abuse of one’s position.
Black money refers to funds not fully or legally owned by the holder. According to a government white paper on black money in India, there are two main sources:
- Illegal Activities: Money from crime, drug trade, terrorism, and corruption.
- Tax Evasion: Wealth from legal activities but accumulated by not declaring income or paying taxes. Some black money also ends up in international tax havens.

Corruption Types

Collusive Corruption: Mutual agreement between parties (e.g., Satyam Scam).
Coercive Corruption: One party is pressured into corrupt acts (e.g., Telgi Stamp Paper Scam).
Systemic Corruption: Pervasive corruption embedded in institutions (e.g., Bofors Scandal).
Political Corruption: Manipulation of political processes and offices (e.g., Jayalalithaa Disproportionate Assets Case).
Bureaucratic Corruption: Corruption within public administration (Ashok Singhvi, a senior IAS officer and Principal Secretary (Mines), was arrested by Rajasthan’s Anti Corruption Bureau in a graft case involving ₹2.55 crore)

Corruption Causes

According to Wilson, “men steal when there is lot of money lying around and no one is watching”.
K Santhanam Committee observes that “corruption can exist only if there is someone corrupt and capable of corrupting“.
Historical and Political:
- Colonial Legacy: Outdated legal frameworks and authoritarian remnants Eg: replacement of IPC/CRPC with BNS/BNNS.
- Criminalization of Politics: 40% sitting MPs face criminal cases,25% with serious charges-ADR report).
- Crony Capitalism: Favoritism between business and political elites.
Individual:
- Low Moral Standards: Decline in personal integrity.
- Low Salaries: Inadequate compensation leading to unethical behavior(2nd ARC).
- Modernization: Shift from traditional values to materialism.
Social:
- Normalization: Corruption accepted across social strata.
- Public Cynicism: Distrust in institutions weakens resistance.
- Lack of Recognition: Honest officials often overlooked.
Organizational:
- Discretionary Powers: Unchecked authority leads to abuse.
- Article 311: Protects government employees from accountability.
- Poor Supervision: Lack of oversight enables corruption.
- Politico-Administrator Nexus: Collaboration in corrupt practices.
- Inefficient Processes: Bureaucratic delays create opportunities.
- Weak Laws: loopholes in PCA1988.

Impact of Corruption

Economic Impact:

Tax Terrorism: Corruption fosters aggressive and unfair tax enforcement.
Business Environment: It hinders the ease of doing business by increasing costs and risks.

Political Impact:

Democratic Erosion: Undermines democratic processes, leading to political instability and weakened rule of law.

Social Impact:

Exacerbated Inequality: deepens social divisions and undermines social cohesion.
Social cost (poor outcome of govt schemes)

Environmental Impact:

Degradation: Corruption in environmental clearances leads to poor management and increased degradation, as seen in cases involving Aditya Birla and Hindalco.

Development Hindrance:

Project Delays: Corruption causes delays in development projects and increases out-of-pocket expenses (OOPE).

National Security:

Defence Irregularities: Corruption in defense deals, like the Bofors cases, jeopardizes national security.
Since 2010, 1,080 corruption cases in the armed forces have been reported, according to a 2022 Defence Ministry update to the Rajya Sabha.

Addressing Corruption

Strengthening Institutions: Enhancing the capacity and independence of institutions that combat corruption.
Legal Reforms: Implementing robust legal frameworks that define and punish corrupt practices.
Transparency: Promoting transparency in government and business operations to reduce opportunities for corruption.
Public Awareness: Educating the public about the dangers of corruption and encouraging them to demand accountability.
International Cooperation: Collaborating with international organizations and other countries to tackle cross-border corruption.

Government efforts to prevent corruption:

Prevention of Corruption Act, 1988: Strengthens legal measures against corruption.
Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002: Targets financial crimes and money laundering.
Central Vigilance Commission Act, 2003: Establishes the CVC as an autonomous body for oversight.
Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act, 2013: Anti-corruption ombudsman for high-level public officials.
Right to Information Act, 2005: Empowers citizens to seek information from the government.
Single Window Clearance: Streamlines approvals to reduce bureaucratic delays.
Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI): Investigative agency for corruption cases.
2nd Administrative Reforms Commission: Recommends measures to improve governance and reduce corruption.
Santhanam Committee: Early efforts to identify and curb corruption.
Whistleblower Protection Act : Safeguards individuals reporting corruption.

Communalism

Definition:- ‘A belief system where allegiance to one’s own ethnic, religious, or cultural group is prioritized over a broader community or society.’

It often involves promoting the interests of one’s own community in opposition to others, sometimes leading to conflict and social division.

Types

According to Bipan Chandra:

Liberal Communalism: Community-based demands within a secular framework.
Example: Early Muslim League demands for separate electorates in British India.
Moderate Communalism: Political mobilization based on community interests.
Example: The Muslim League’s push for Pakistan during the 1940s.
Extreme Communalism: Hostility and violence between communities.
Example: The 1947 Partition of India, leading to mass communal violence.

Factors Contributing to Communalism

British policy of Divide and Rule: Policies like the 1909 separate electorates, Communal Award 1932 deepened communal divisions.
Divisive Politics: Politicians and political parties may exploit communal identities for electoral gains, deepening existing divisions and fostering sectarianism.
Different Perceptions of History: The communal interpretation of Indian history portrays the ancient phase as the Hindu phase and the medieval phase as the Muslim phase.
Psychological Factors: Lack of interpersonal trust causes stereotypes, such as Islamophobia, to intensify communal fears (e.g., post-9/11 Islamophobia).
Misinformation spread by Social Media: Religiously offensive news incites violence (e.g., Kanhaiyalal murder, 2022; Nooh violence).
Economic Backwardness and Uneven Development: Poverty exacerbates tensions (e.g., Muzaffarnagar riots, 2013).
Fundamentalism and radicalization: Online propaganda from groups like ISIS increases communalism, such as the radicalization of youth in Kashmir.

Impact

Undermines Social Cohesion: Erodes the social fabric by fostering mistrust and hostility between different communities.
Hampers Development: Diverts resources and attention away from developmental activities to managing conflicts and maintaining law and order.
Weakens Democracy: Undermines democratic principles by promoting narrow community interests over national interests.
Human Rights Violations: Leads to violations of human rights, especially of minority communities.
Psychological Impact: Causes psychological trauma and a sense of insecurity among affected communities.
Social Division: Creates divisions in society based on religious, ethnic, or linguistic lines.
Violence and Riots: Leads to communal violence, riots, and loss of lives and property.
Political Instability: Causes political instability due to communal tensions and conflicts.
Discrimination: Leads to discrimination against minority communities in various spheres like employment, education, and access to services.
Economic Disruption: Disrupts economic activities due to conflicts, impacting businesses and livelihoods.
Forced Migration

Measures to Counter Communalism

Constitutional Provisions:
- Article 51(A): Promotes the spirit of common brotherhood among all citizens.
Representation of the People Act, 1951:
- Prohibits election campaigns that appeal for votes based on religion.
Indian Penal Code:
Communal Violence Prevention, Control & Rehabilitation of Victims Act, 2005:
- Focuses on preventing communal violence and ensuring the rehabilitation of victims.

Other Suggestions

Short term : Peace Committees, Media Supervision, Law enforcement, Rehabilitation of victims
Long term: Fostering a Secular culture
Sachhar Committee recommended an Equal Opportunities Commission to deal complaints of intolerance and exclusion
Regulating Media debate polarisation
Careful watch on foreign intervention
Proactive approach by National Foundation for Communal Harmony → Quami Ekta week etc
Code of conduct for political parties to curb identity politics.
Hong Kong & Malaysian Models:
- Hong Kong: Race Relations Units promote racial harmony.
- Malaysia: MESRA initiative fosters ethnic integration and community engagement.

Poverty

The United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC) defines poverty as a chronic deprivation of resources, capabilities, choices, security, and power that prevents people from enjoying an adequate standard of living and other rights.

Previous Year Questions

Year	Question	Marks
2023	Culture of Poverty	2 M

Related Terms

“Poverty is more than an economic problem” – Amartya sen.
Andre beteille in his article ” pollution and poverty” considers poverty is more contagious than pollution.
Absolute Poverty:
Refers to a condition where household income is below a necessary level to maintain basic living standards (food, shelter, housing). It is also called “subsistence poverty”.

Relative Poverty:
- Refers to a condition where household income is a certain percentage below median incomes. It highlights inequalities within a society.
Poverty Line:
An economic benchmark used to measure poverty, In 2009-10, the poverty line was defined as Rs 673 per person per month in rural areas and Rs 860 in urban areas (based on a minimum calorie intake of 2,400 for rural and 2,100 for urban individuals.)

Human Poverty Index (HPI):
- Developed by the United Nations, it measures deprivation in basic human development in three essential dimensions:
  - Longevity
  - Knowledge
  - Decent standard of living
The Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI):
- Prepared by NITI Aayog.
- 24.82 crore Indians have escaped multidimensional poverty in the last 9 years, with
- Significant improvement across 12 indicators of 3 dimensions
  - Health: Nutrition, child and adolescent mortality, maternal health
  - Education: Years of schooling, school attendance
  - Standard of living: Cooking fuel, sanitation, drinking water, electricity, housing, assets, bank accounts.
- India is on track to achieve SDG Target 1.2 (reduce poverty by at least half by 2030) well before 2030.

Categorizing Poverty:

Chronic Poor: Always poor or usually poor, with occasional slightly better income (e.g., casual workers).
Churning Poor: Regularly move in and out of poverty (e.g., small farmers, seasonal workers).
Transient Poor: Generally wealthy but occasionally fall into poverty due to bad luck.
Non-Poor: Those who are never poor.

Poverty Causes

Colonial Exploitation: Severe de-industrialization during colonial rule; India’s share of global industrial production fell from 17.6% in 1830 to 1.7% by 1900.
Lack of Investment for the Poor: Insufficient investment in health and education; e.g., China’s experience with healthcare debts post-1981 until the reintroduction of universal healthcare.
Social System: Caste-based exploitation; Dalits form a significant portion of the poor and unemployed, as per S.M. Michael.
Economic Policies: Slow growth (“Hindu growth rate” of 3.5% from the 1950s to 1980s); corruption and red tape hinder development, though current trends suggest a majority may be middle class by 2025.
Over-Reliance on Agriculture: 60% of the population depends on agriculture, contributing only 18% to GDP.
Population Pressure: Rapid population growth hinders development and exacerbates poverty.
High Illiteracy: Literacy rate at 74.04%, with rural areas at 67.77%, limits opportunities.
High Unemployment: Jobless growth, with significant disguised and seasonal unemployment in agriculture.
Lack of Entrepreneurship: Weak industrial base, capital deficiency, and limited entrepreneurial spirit.

Consequences

Culture of poverty
Dependency culture
Malnutrition
Population explosion
Degradation in morality
Illiteracy (can’t spend on education.)
Social deviance (crimes corruption)
Increase in IMR, MMR

Theories Related to Poverty:

Economic poverty: As defined in the Western context, focuses on the lack of financial resources and income, measuring poverty primarily by material wealth and living standards.
Culture of Poverty :
- Oscar Lewis’s “Culture of Poverty” suggests that people living in poverty develop their own way of life to cope with their difficult circumstances. This includes a focus on surviving day-to-day, feelings of hopelessness, and social isolation. While this helps them manage their situation, it can also prevent them from fully participating in society and can make it harder for them to escape poverty.
- Criticism: This idea unfairly blames the poor for their situation instead of addressing the broader social issues that keep them in poverty.
Poverty as a positive feedback system or vicious circle :
- It is also called the vicious circle of poverty and this theory argues that various factors which cause poverty work in such a way that a poor person can never get out of those. For example – unemployment leads to poverty, poor people cannot have good education, without good education there is no employment

Cycle of Poverty:
- Describes how poverty is perpetuated from one generation to another due to a lack of access to education, healthcare, and employment opportunities.
Structural Theory of Poverty:
- Posits that poverty results from systemic issues such as unequal distribution of wealth, lack of job opportunities, and inadequate education systems. It emphasizes the role of social, economic, and political structures in perpetuating poverty.
Modernization Theory:
- Argues that poverty is due to the lack of modern industrial and technological development. It suggests that poor countries can develop economically by adopting modern practices and institutions.
Dependency Theory:
- Asserts that poverty in developing countries is a result of their dependence on developed countries. This theory highlights the exploitative nature of global capitalism and the unequal economic relationships between nations.

Addressing Poverty

Efforts for Poverty Alleviation in India (4 ways)

Wage employment
- MGNREGA: Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act provides 100 days of wage employment to rural households.
- Prime Minister Street Vendor’s AtmaNirbhar Nidhi (PM SVANidhi): Provides street vendors with affordable loans to support their businesses post-COVID-19.
- Chief Minister Swanidhi Scheme: Loan up to Rs 80 thousand to street vendors.
Self-employment
- IRDP: Integrated Rural Development Programme aimed at providing self-employment to the rural poor.
- NREP: National Rural Employment Programme focused on generating wage employment.
- RLEGP: Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme provided employment to landless laborers.
- TRYSEM: Training Rural Youth for Self-Employment targeted skill development for rural youth.
Food surety
- NFSA-2013: National Food Security Act ensures subsidized food grains to the poor.
- National Nutrition Mission (Poshan Abhiyan): Focuses on improving nutritional outcomes for children and women.
- Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Yojana (PMGKY): Free food grains during emergencies.
Social security
- Pradhan Mantri Shram Yogi Maan-Dhan (PM-SYM): Offers pension schemes for unorganized sector workers.
- Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana: providing universal access to banking services
- DPAP: Drought Prone Areas Programme aimed at mitigating the impact of droughts on the rural poor.
- Pradhan Mantri Gramin Awaas Yojana: Provides housing for the rural poor.
- Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana: Provides free LPG connections to women from poor households.
Pollution and Purity
- The notion of pollution and purity is confined to the caste system.
- Poverty, on the other hand, transcends barriers of caste, religion, and region.
- People in poverty, regardless of their state or language, face uniform discrimination.
- Thus, unlike pollution, poverty doesn’t adhere to social or cultural boundaries, making it more contagious than the notion of pollution.
- (Andre Beteille ne diya tha concept)

Unemployment

A situation where individuals who are capable of working, and are actively seeking work, are unable to find any employment. It includes those who are temporarily laid off and are waiting to be called back to their jobs.

Previous Year Questions

Year	Question	Marks
2023	Casual Employment	2 M

Key Labor Market Indicators in India

Labor force: Means all persons who are working as well as those who are not working but are seeking for work at the current wage rate.
Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR): LFPR is defined as the percentage of persons in labour force (i.e. working or seeking or available for work)in the population.
Worker Population Ratio (WPR): WPR is defined as the percentage of employed persons in the population.

Types of Unemployment

Frictional Unemployment:

Frictional unemployment occurs when people are temporarily out of work while transitioning from one job to another or entering the workforce for the first time. It reflects the time taken to match job seekers with suitable job openings.

Example: A recent college graduate looking for their first job or a worker who has quit their job to find a better position.

Structural Unemployment:

Structural unemployment arises when there is a mismatch between the skills of workers and the requirements of available jobs. This type of unemployment is often caused by technological changes, shifts in consumer demand, or changes in the economy.

Example: Factory workers who lose their jobs due to automation and lack the skills needed for new types of jobs in the technology sector.

Cyclical Unemployment:

Cyclical unemployment occurs due to economic downturns or recessions. When the economy slows down, businesses reduce their output and may lay off workers, leading to temporary unemployment.

Example: Workers laid off during a recession when companies reduce production and cut jobs due to decreased consumer demand.

Seasonal Unemployment:

Seasonal unemployment happens when people are out of work during certain seasons or periods of the year due to the nature of their jobs. It is tied to seasonal variations in demand for labor.

Example: Agricultural workers who are only employed during planting or harvest seasons or workers in the tourism industry who are busy only during peak travel seasons.

Disguised Unemployment:

Disguised unemployment occurs when more people are employed than necessary, and their contribution to production is minimal or zero. This often happens in sectors where too many people are working in comparison to the actual need for labor.

Example: In a family-owned farm, too many family members working on the farm may not actually contribute significantly to the overall productivity of the farm, leading to disguised unemployment.

Long-Term Unemployment:

Long-term unemployment refers to the situation where individuals are unemployed for an extended period, typically longer than 12 months. This can be due to a lack of skills, job opportunities, or other barriers.

Example: An individual who has been searching for a job for over a year without success, perhaps due to a mismatch between their skills and available job opportunities.

Underemployment:

Underemployment occurs when people are employed, but their skills or productivity are not fully utilized. They might be working in jobs that do not match their education or training level.

Example: A highly educated individual working in a job that requires minimal skills, such as a degree holder working as a cashier.

Types of Employment

Formal Employment:

Jobs that are regulated by labor laws, offering written contracts, job security, and benefits like health insurance and retirement plans.

Example: A full-time employee working as an accountant for a multinational corporation, receiving a regular salary, health benefits, and retirement contributions

Part-Time Employment:

Jobs where individuals work fewer hours per week than a full-time position.

Example: A student working as a part-time barista at a coffee shop, working 20 hours a week, and not receiving benefits like health insurance.

Self-Employment:

Employment where individuals work for themselves, running their own business or working as freelancer with less job security and fewer benefits

Temporary Employment:

Jobs intended to last for a short duration, such as seasonal work or contract-based roles.

Example: A retail worker hired for the holiday season to handle increased customer traffic, with the job ending after the season is over.

Casual Employment:

Employment where workers are hired on an as-needed basis, often with irregular hours and minimal job security.

Example: A construction worker hired for specific projects or tasks, such as building a new home, with no long-term commitment or guaranteed hours.

Casualisation of workforce:

The shift from self-employment and regular salaried jobs to casual wage work is referred to as the casualization of the workforce.

Full-Time Employment:

Jobs requiring individuals to work the standard number of hours per week, typically offering more stability and benefits.

Example: An administrative assistant working 40 hours per week at an office, receiving a regular salary, health benefits, and paid leave.

Informal Employment:

Jobs that are not regulated by labor laws, often lacking formal contracts, job security, and benefits.

Example: A street vendor selling snacks, who operates independently without a formal contract or benefits, and who may not have job security.

Measurement of Unemployment

Unemployment rate: It is the percent of the labor force that is without work. It is calculated as below:

Unemployment Rate = Unemployed Workers × 100 Total Labor Force

Usual Principal Status Unemployment (UPS): This tracks people who are unemployed for most of the year, especially those looking for regular jobs. It highlights long-term unemployment, often among educated and skilled workers, and is also called “open unemployment.”
Usual Principal and Subsidiary Status Unemployment (UPSS): Considers a person unemployed if they are unable to find work, even on a part-time or occasional basis, throughout the year.
Current Weekly Status Unemployment (CWS): This refers to the number of persons who did not find even an hour of work during the survey week.
Current Daily Status Unemployment (CDS): This refers to the number of persons who did not find work on a day, or on some days, during the survey week.

Causes of Unemployment in India:

Slow Economic Growth
Increase in Labor force: Rapid population growth and social factors contribute to a surplus of job seekers.
Rural-Urban Migration
Inappropriate Technology: Despite the abundance of labor, capital intensive technology is adopted in India mainly because of rigid labor laws
Defective Educational System: mismatch between the need and availability of relevant skills and training.
Lack of Infrastructure Development:
Lack of employability

Drug Addiction

“Harmful or hazardous use of psychoactive substances, including alcohol, illicit drug like marijuana, heroin, tobacco.” — Parliamentary Standing committee Stats–

21 Cr. people Using drugs, 16 Cr consuming Alcohol, 3 Cr cannabis users.

Related Terms

Drug Abuse: The use of drugs in a manner that deviates from medical guidelines or social norms, often leading to negative consequences for the individual and society. It involves consuming drugs for non-medical reasons or in excessive amounts.
Substance Use Disorder (SUD): A medical condition involving the repeated use of substances (drugs or alcohol) that leads to significant impairment or distress. It includes a range of severity from mild to severe based on the number of diagnostic criteria met.
Dependence: A state in which the body adapts to a drug, leading to tolerance (requiring more of the drug to achieve the same effect) and withdrawal symptoms when the drug is reduced or stopped.
Medication-Assisted Treatment (MAT): The use of medications, along with counseling and behavioral therapies, to treat substance use disorders by managing withdrawal symptoms and cravings.
Harm Reduction: Strategies and policies aimed at minimizing the negative health, social, and legal impacts associated with drug use. This includes practices like needle exchange programs and supervised injection sites.
Co-occurring Disorders: The presence of both a substance use disorder and a mental health disorder in an individual, requiring integrated treatment approaches for effective management.
Substance Abuse: The harmful or hazardous use of psychoactive substances, including alcohol and illicit drugs, characterized by a pattern of behavior that leads to significant adverse consequences. This includes the compulsive consumption of substances despite the negative effects on health, relationships, and daily functioning.

Drug Addiction Causes

Economic: Unemployment and shifting attitudes can lead to increased vulnerability to drug use.
Social: Lack of parental care, influence of countercultures like hippie culture, and communication gaps can contribute to substance abuse.
Educational: Poor awareness in curricula and negligence about the consequences of drug use are significant educational factors.
Psychological: Issues like low self-esteem, desire to alleviate pain, insomnia, and psychological stress can drive drug addiction.
Cultural: Globalization and social disintegration can erode traditional values, leading to increased drug use.
Open promotion of alcohol in films
Sense of social acceptance
Geographical: Proximity to regions like the “Golden Triangle” increases the availability and risk of drug addiction.

Challenges

Cultural Acceptance: Certain regions, like Western Rajasthan, have deep-rooted cultural acceptance of substances like opium.
Easy Availability: Widespread access to drugs makes addiction harder to combat.
Vulnerable Youth: Young people are particularly susceptible to drug addiction due to various social and psychological factors.
Geographical Positioning: India’s proximity to major drug trafficking zones, such as the Golden Triangle and Golden Crescent, exacerbates the issue.
Lack of International Cooperation: Insufficient global collaboration hampers efforts to control drug trafficking and addiction.
Social Stigma: The stigma surrounding addiction discourages individuals from seeking help, worsening the problem.

Impact

Emotional Strain in Families: Increased stress, anxiety, and depression.
Financial Burden on Families: Significant costs for treatment and lost income.
Increased Demand on Healthcare: Higher need for medical and mental health services.
Loss of Productivity: Decreased work performance and economic output.
Increased Crime Rates: More drug-related crimes and violence.
Higher Legal Costs: Increased spending on law enforcement and legal proceedings.
Lower Academic Performance: Higher dropout rates and behavioral issues in schools.
Social Isolation: Withdrawal and stigma affecting personal relationships.
Public Health Risks: Spread of infectious diseases like HIV and hepatitis.
Economic Impact: Reduced workforce participation and impaired economic growth.

Addressing Drug Addiction

Prevention Programs: Education and awareness campaigns to prevent drug abuse and addiction, targeting schools, communities, and families.
Treatment and Counseling: Access to medical and psychological treatment, including therapy, counseling, and support groups.
Detoxification Services: Medical support for safely managing withdrawal symptoms and eliminating drugs from the body.
Rehabilitation Programs: Structured rehabilitation programs that include therapy, life skills training, and relapse prevention strategies.
Medication-Assisted Treatment (MAT): Use of medications to help manage cravings and withdrawal symptoms, often combined with counseling.
Support Groups: Participation in support groups like Narcotics Anonymous (NA) for peer support and shared experiences.
Harm Reduction Strategies: Implementing needle exchange programs, supervised injection sites, and providing information on safe drug use practices.
Family and Social Support: Engaging family members and support networks in the recovery process to provide encouragement and stability.
Legal and Policy Measures: Enforcing laws and policies that address drug trafficking and support addiction treatment and recovery services.
Reintegration Programs: Assistance with reintegration into society, including job training, education, and housing support.
- Other efforts:-
- “Operation Meow-Meow” – started by Barmer Police to prevent drug abuse
- “Operation Seema” – started by Sri Ganganagar District Administration to prevent drug trafficking
- “Operation Bhaukaal” is being run by Jodhpur Range Police for joint action against drugs
- Naya Savera Abhiyan – started by Jodhpur District Administration to prevent drug abuse
- Anti Narcotics Task Force:- 9 posts of this force will be established in Rajasthan

Government Initiatives to Counter Drug Addiction:

Constitutional:

Article 47: Mandates the state to work towards the prohibition of intoxicating substances injurious to health.

Legal Measures:

NDPS Act, 1985: Regulates and penalizes the production, sale, and use of narcotic drugs with stringent measures to curb drug abuse.
COTPA, 2003: Controls tobacco consumption by banning public smoking, restricting advertisements, and enforcing health warnings.
NAPDDR: Focuses on reducing drug demand through preventive education, awareness, and community-based interventions.
Nasha Mukt Bharat Abhiyan: A nationwide campaign aimed at creating a drug-free India through awareness and de-addiction programs.
NDDP: Provides treatment and rehabilitation services via de-addiction centers and counseling.
School-Based Awareness (Navchetna): Educates students on the dangers of drug use, promoting a drug-free lifestyle.

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