Chapter 2: Caste and Class in Indian Society

Caste and class in Indian society are deeply intertwined, shaping social hierarchy and economic divisions. Sociology examines how these factors influence social mobility, power structures, and everyday interactions.

Previous Year Questions

YearQuestionMarks
2023How Caste system represents segmental division of society ?5 M
2021Why is the caste system an example of inequality?2 M
2021Which attributes have been given for the dominant caste by M.N. Srinivas?5 M
2018Caste is an endogamous group. How ?2 M
2016Differentiate between Caste and Class.5 M
2016 SpecialHow is caste traditionally associated with division of labour in society ?2 M
2016 SpecialDescribe the characteristics of caste given by G.S. Ghurye5 M

Caste

Derived from the Portuguese word ‘casta’ meaning race, breed. First used by Gracia De Orta.

Definition: (Innka use aap Answer ko shuru krne me kar skte ho )

  • MacIver and Page : “When status is wholly pre determined without any hope of changing it, then the class takes the form of caste.”
  • Ketkar: “A caste is a group having two characteristics –
  • Membership is confined to those who are born out of members and includes all persons so born
  • The members are forbidden by an inexorable social law to marry outside the group.”
  • Majumdar and Madan: “Caste is a closed group.”
  • N.K. Dutta: “Members of one caste cannot get married outside caste and with some other rigid rules related to eating and drinking with other people, and many castes have certain occupations.

Theories of Origin Of Caste System

  • Traditional theory
    • The caste system is an extension of the varna system, where the four varnas originated from the body of Brahma. The Brahmins, who came from Brahma’s head, were at the top of the social order.
  • Social historical theory
    • The caste system originated with the arrival of Aryans in India around 1500 BC.
  • Religious theory
    • It is believed that one’s caste is determined by their past actions (karma) in previous lives.
  • Senart’s theory
    • After doing parallel studies of Indian, Greek, and Roman society he propounded that social discrimination is the cause of the origin of the caste system rather than the racial discrimination.
  • Occupational theory
    •  According to Nesfield, ‘the initial division of labor’ evolved into endogamous occupational groups. In due course of time, these groups solidified into a caste system. 
  • Racial theory
    • “Caste is a product of race that came to India along with Aryans”- Herbert Risley
    • Theory: The caste system originated from racial differences, with Aryans (Indo-Aryans) imposing their supremacy over the Dravidians, the indigenous people of India.
    • According to this theory, Aryans defeated the natives and developed the racial hierarchy system to protect the supremacy of their blood, which later changed into a caste system. Risley believed that the higher castes originated from Indo-Aryans while the lower castes originated from non-Aryan races.
    • Criticism: Critics argue that the racial theory oversimplifies the complexity of the caste system and ignores other significant factors like occupation and social roles.
    • Other supporters: Ghurye(Book- Caste and Race in India) partially supported this theory; Mazumdar(Book-Races and Culture in India).
  • Divine origin theory
    • This theory says that the caste system was created by Brahma himself.

Characteristics of caste

A.K.Dutta has mentioned the following characteristics of caste-

  • No member of caste can marry outside caste.
  • Every caste has restrictions regarding food habits.
  • The caste occupation is fixed.
  • There is hierarchical arrangement of castes. The Brahmins occupy the highest spot.
  • Indeterminacy in all castes and subcastes,- In reality Jatis are more fluid, with countless jatis (subcastes) spread across different regions, each with varying social statuses and occupational roles.
  • The membership of the caste is ascribed from birth for the whole life. But in case of violation of the rules of a caste, membership can be terminated(outcasted).

Ghurye in his book “Caste, Class and Occupation” mentioned the following characteristics-

  • Segmental division of society-The caste system divides the society into different segments and parts and the segment or part is divided into sub segments or sub parts. The status of the members of each section and subdivision is fixed. By which people’s affection, love and sympathy are more in their caste than in other caste. Therefore, it is clear that the entire society is divided into different sections and subsections.
  • Hierarchy-Hierarchical order. Changes in hierarchy are not possible on the basis of wealth, property or prestige, because caste is the form of a closed class.
  •  Restriction on food and Intercourse- Food prepared by the members of the other caste is restricted.
  • Civil and Religious disabilities and Restriction- In the past the Brahmins were considered so-called in high position, and all rights were provided. Religious disabilities were imposed on the Dalits.
  • Lack of choice in selection of occupation-Predetermined or traditional occupation, without any right to make changes  it .Members expected to do the same occupation or profession prescribed by the system to avoid hurdles in the social system.
  • Restriction regarding marriage- In every caste, the rule is strictly followed that its members should marry within their own caste.In this form, the caste is represented as an endogamous group.Marriage Restrictions, whether it is high or low, are found in all caste.

Ghurye laid particular stress on endogamy as the most important feature of the caste system. Caste hierarchy maintained through endogamy.

Features by Ketkar- 

  • Endogamy- Members are forbidden to marry outside their castes.
  • Innate membership– birth based, given to people born out of members and includes all persons so born.

Castes in modern times

  • People can choose their occupation as per their choice and they are doing it too.
  • Persons from the lower caste are employed on high posts today. 
  • Many upper class or caste members have also changed their occupation or profession.
  • The marriage relations are becoming weaker.
  • Every year, the number of love marriages increases and inter-caste marriages make it clear that marriage-related caste restrictions are breaking down. 
  • The characteristics presented by Ghurye are still seen in rural areas but in urban areas the caste system has moved on the path of change.

Functions and attributes of the caste

  • Determining Social Status: A person’s social status is fixed by birth due to the caste system, with no impact from property, wealth, or social success.
  • Determining Occupation: Occupation is predetermined by birth, with individuals acquiring skills related to their family’s trade, leading to a stable career path without competition-related stress.
  • Mental Security: The caste system provides psychological, mental security and stability by planning life’s course, reducing the impact of life’s ups and downs.  Everything is predetermined and pre planned thereby giving psychological protection and lessens the stress.
  • Selecting a Life Partner: Caste rules guide marriage choices, helping individuals select suitable life partners within their caste.
  • Social Security  and Social Order: The caste system offers social security, providing support and solutions during personal crises. The Caste system also guides individual social behavior thereby maintaining a social order.
  • Behavior Control(social regulator): Caste enforces behavioral norms through strict rules, with exclusion for rule-breakers, ensuring members adhere to societal expectations.
  • Additional Functions: The caste system has contributed to societal training and efficiency, influencing the development of social structures.

Dysfunction, demerits or defects of the caste system

  • Un-democratic: Promotes inequality and hierarchy, denying equal rights and opportunities.
  • Obstruction in Worker Mobility: Restricts individuals to traditional occupations, preventing choice and skill-based progress.
  • Hinders Social Progress: Conservatism and fear of boycott prevent social change and innovation.
  • Cultural Development Hurdle: Lacks cultural unity; hierarchy and discrimination hinder collective progress.
  • Obstacles in Personal Development: Neglects individual abilities, imposing roles based on birth, not merit.
  • Hindering Social Development: Creates social inequality, dividing society into upper and lower castes.
  • Obstacle in Economic Development: Limits occupational mobility, reduces efficiency, and creates economic disparity.
  • Obstacles in National Unity: Prioritizes caste loyalty over national unity, fostering disunity.
  • Religious Conversion: Rigidity in Hinduism led to conversions to Christianity and Islam.
  • Limited Marriage Area: Caste restricts marriage choices, limiting social integration.
  •  Unhealthy political practices:  Practices like caste politics and appeasement policies are result of deep rooted caste system

Factors that changed pattern of Caste System:

  • Change in occupation.
  • Importance of working capacity. 
  • End of untouchability 
  • Changes of marriage pattern (INTER- CASTE ,INTER -FAITH)
  • Urbanization and Industrialization
  • ⁠Increasing importance of money
  • Development of education
  • Social reform movements.
  • Political movements.
  • Independence and judicial system of India
  • Economic Changes and Liberalization (1991 onwards- LPG reforms)
  • Globalization and Westernization
  • Media and Technology

Jajmani System

  • Jajmani system or Yajmani system was an economic system, most notably found in the villages of India, in which one caste performed various functions for other castes and received grains or services or other goods in return.
  • It is an economic contract in which The caste receiving the service was called Jajman while the service provider was called Kamin or Praja.
  • William Wizer in Book- “The Hindu Jajmani System”,   As per his functionalist  view stated that the Jajmani system was equality based ( An egalitarian system), various castes were dependent on each other, Insured protection from each other and understood each other’s importance. have you met before
  • Louis Dumont in book – “Homo Hierarchicus” “It was an exploitative system and the upper castes exploited the lower castes”
    • Brahmins provided service but were not called Kamin or Praja
    • Some labour castes were service providers, but did not receive any service in return.
    • The value of various services was not equal and sufficient.
    • Jajmans were mostly upper castes and lower castes were Kamin.
  • Functions-
    • Economic transactions occurred between a service provider and a patron, known as Praja and Jajman respectively. Service providers received goods or money as compensation for their services. For example, a goldsmith would make jewellery, and a Brahmin would perform a Yajna. 
    • Social relationships were based on the interdependence of various castes, creating a social order. For example, a landlord treated the potter well because he needed the potter’s services. (edited)
    • Political support – A Jajman and Kamin acted as a unified group as the Jajman needed support of Kamin to display legitimacy of his rule. Example – Zamindars
  • Drawbacks-
    • Exploitation – Restrictive in nature, it led to the exploitation of lower classes who were made to do degrading jobs. Example – Bonded labourers.
    • Social Boundations – Boundations on people to not perform other work than that of his own caste. Sometimes, the Kamin was not allowed to serve any other Jajman.

As a result of urbanization, modernization, modern occupation and education, the Jajmani system ended. But  it is symbolically still present in Northern India.

Caste and Class in Indian Society: Dominant Caste

  • Defined by M.N.Srinivas.
  • He first proposed it in his early papers on the village of Rampura.
  • “A particular caste economically, spiritually and politically above other castes.”
  • In simple terms, a caste which yields economic or political power, has a significant numerical strength and occupies a fairly high position in the hierarchy.

Six attributes:

  1. Sizeable amount of arable land
  2. Numerical Strength
  3. Regional Dominance – High place in the local hierarchy. High Ritual Status (or Sanskritization) -In some cases, the caste has a high position in the caste hierarchy (e.g., Brahmins, Rajputs), but even middle or lower castes can become dominant through Sanskritization.
  4. Western education
  5. More representation in the administration jobs
  6. Urban sources of income.

Of the above attributes of the dominant caste, the following three are important:

  1. Numerical strength
  2. Economic power through ownership of land
  3. Political power.
  • Ex- Jats in Punjab & Haryana
  • Jats, Yadavs, Brahmins, Thakurs- UP
  • Rajputs, Jats- Rajasthan
  • Patidars (Patels)- Gujarat
  • Lingayats, Vokkaligas- Karnataka
  • Reddys- Andhra & Telangana

CASTE MOBILITY

Caste mobility is the movement of one caste from one possession to another position in a social stratification; the movement might be upward or downward or even horizontal. Cast mobility is visible in social processes like sanskritization, de sanskritization, Westernization, etc

Class

  • MacIver and Page – “A social class is that part of the group which could be separated from other people on the basis of social status”.
  • Karl Marx – “The Class is such a fact of any society in which the means of property and production represents the basis of social stratification”.  Man is a class animal i.e. his status, age, education etc are not same in the society.
  • In general, a group of people with similar social conditions, related directly or indirectly to each other constitute a class. It is based on factors like power, prestige, wealth, education, occupation, ability etc.
  • Class is an open system of stratification whose basis may be social status, economic, cultural or educational  status, cultural stability, qualifications, etc.
  • Before the arrival of the British class system was absent because caste system was the only base of social stratification. Class system developed during British rule in India because of two major factors  And resulted in emergence of two classes the rich and the poor
    • Land reforms- The Raiyatwari, Zamindari and Mahalwari system were implemented which resulted in emergence of two classes in rural society-
      •  Zamindar, Mahajan, Sahukar, Bhuswami
      •  Farmer, Raiyat, Shilpi, small animal rearers
    • Industrialization and urbanization-  Because of these two classes emerged in urban societies
      •  Industrialist, capitalist, investor class
      •  Labor class
  •  As a result of Macaulay’s education system  during British rule, a new class emerged in the urban society which was the middle class.
  • The major reasons for the emergence of middle class in India were
    • Macaulay’s education system- Higher castes were  influenced
    • Industrialization and urbanization-  Higher costs were influenced
    • Green revolution-  Other  backward classes
    • Reservation and education –  Lower casts like scheduled castes and scheduled tribes
  • Post 1990 LPG reforms –  Women and middle men

Features of Class system

  • PYRAMIDAL STRUCTURE – There can be many classes in a society.
    • Upper class – Less population – More property.
    • Lower class – More population – Less property.
  • SUPERIOR-INFERIOR 
    • There is a feeling of superiority and inferiority among classes. Upper class consider the lower as inferior while the lower class considers the upper as superior.
    • Example: Ruling class and those who are ruled
  • SAME SOCIAL CONDITIONS
    • Social conditions of members of same class is similar, their base can be different
  • CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS
    • ⁠This system results into class consciousness and awareness towards one’s rights
    • Example- the labour class organized themselves and raised voice on issues like demand for salary, bonus, working hours etc.
  • OPEN
    • The membership of class is not innate, It is an open system, the membership has to be acquired.
  • SOCIAL DISTANCE AMONG CLASSES
    • Social and cultural relations of the members of some classes are similar. That is why they establish relations with people of their own class.
  • CREATION OF SUBCLASSES
    • There can be sub-classes in a class- Like Upper middle class and lower middle class in the middle class.
  • DISTINCT FEATURES.
    • Every class has some specific objective features that help in identifying it Such as – Rich class lives in pucca houses and luxurious apartments while the poor class lives in slums and undeveloped areas. 
  • SIMILAR OPPORTUNITIES⁠ ⁠
    • People of same class get equal opportunity to work such as industries and businesses for the upper class, labour for the lower class.
  • SIMILAR LIFESTYLE 
    • People of of same class have similar life style. Those belonging to higher class are extravagant, consume luxurious good, the middle class observes rituale and the lower class lives in scarcely.
  • ACHIEVED STATUS
    • Class arrangement is based on achieved status through eligibility and situation.
  • NOT INNATE
    • A person born in an uneducated family can take education and subscribe to the educated class.

Factors Determining Class

  • Nature of Occupation: The base of emergence of many classes in the society.
  • ⁠Economic Condition: In the present capitalists economy, economic condition help in attaining specific social status. Example-Emergence of higher class, middle class and lower class 
  • ⁠Education: On the basis of capabilities or incompetencies. – Example- Literate or illiterate.
  • Place of Residence: People select residence as per their condition. Example- Civil lines, Labour colony, Slums etc.
  • Religion- Indian society is divided on the basis of religion. Example-  Hindu Class, Muslim class, Sikh class etc
  • Caste – Mainstay in class determination. Various caste groups form a class.

Karl Marx believed that social classes are defined by:

  1. Who owns or possesses property and the means of production
  2. Who performs the work in the production process
  3. The social relationships involved in work and labor
  4. Who produces and who controls the surplus human social labor can produce

Marx believed that society has transformed from feudal society into capitalist society, which is based on two social classes:

  • Bourgeoisie: The ruling class who own the means of production
  • Proletariat: The working class who are exploited

Robert Bierstadt has mentioned 7 factors for class determination:

  1. Family or blood group.
  2. Property, wealth, capital or income.
  3. ⁠Location of Residence
  4. Duration of residence
  5. Profession
  6. ⁠Education
  7. Religion

Thorsten Veblen– Four categories- 

  • Parasitic or unproductive luxury class.
  • The old nobleman or Nawab.
  • The new wealthy or gambler class.
  • The productive working class.

Veblen says that every class makes use of mere attractive and luxurious objects to reach a higher class.

Dimensions of the new class system

Modern education, industrialization and other developments have led to many changes in the class system. New dimensions are- 

  1. Intellectual class- Emerged with education and science;unify society; teachers, scientists, philosophers etc.
  2. Administrative or ruling class– Members of ruling political party;ensure socio economic development
  3. Peasant class- agricultural and related activities
  4. Bourgeoisie or Capitalist class– influence industrial and economic activities; businessmen, industrialists.
  5. Labour or working class– earn daily wages, vendors, farm and factory workers, rickshaw pullers.
  6. Elite class – Independent professionals; bring about social changes through knowledge and logic; Doctors, lawyers, artists.
  7. Bureaucratic class– permanent organ of government; run administration; Collector, SDO

Difference between Caste and Class

BASISCASTECLASS
MEANINGSegmental division of society based on heredity and restrictions imposed on marriage, occupation and lifestyle.Open system of stratification whose basis may be social, economic, educational, cultural status.
MEMBERSHIPInnate and ascribed.Has to be acquired
OCCUPATIONFixed. No mobility.Not fixed
NORMSExpected to follow prescribed rituals and normsNo such compulsion
TYPEClosed and static system.Dynamic and open system.
MARRIAGEEndogamousCan marry outside one’s class.
NATUREPermanentTemporary
RELIGIONThe caste system has religious connotations.The class system is not based on any religion.
DISTINCTIONBased on inferiority-superiority of human beings.Based on inferiority – superiority of social status.
DEMOCRACYDoes not promote democracy.Does not necessarily act as a hindrance to democracy.
INEQUALITYCumulative Inequality. Wider social gap.Dispersed Inequality. Social gap is not so wide.

Occupation

  • Caste is not occupational in origin. History provides many examples of different castes following different occupations. The members of the same caste also followed different occupations. 
  • But in theory, occupations were described Varna-wise in earlier times. Under the varna system, the Brahmins, Kshatriyan Vaishyas and Shudras had their predefined Occupations.
  •  These varnas were work-based and hence one could change them by changing one’s occupation. 
  • With the passage of time the varnas and castes became birth based and the freedom to choose an occupation ended. The member of the group had to follow the occupation of his own group, varna or caste.

Example- A hymn in Rigveda – ‘I am a singer, my father is a physician my mother is a grinder of corn’. Hence members of the same family took up different professions of different Varnas.

Present Scenario-

  • On the basis of occupation, various classes have emerged in Indian society. Occupational similarity determines the class in the modern era.
  • In the class system, people can switch occupations more easily than in the old caste system, allowing for greater mobility.
  • Occupation is one of the determinants of a class.

Merits and Demerits of Fixed Occupation.

  • Merits-
    • Labour division leads to work specialization.
    • Work of all classes was fixed, hence there was no conflict.
    • Some classes attained expertise and distinction could be made between closely related fields- like tanner and hide-dresser, carpenter and Chariot maker etc.
    • A balance was created in the society.
  • Demerits
    • Exploitation of various groups increased. 
    • ⁠Efficiency decreased as one could not take up occupation as per skills, abilities and interests.
    • It became a hurdle in economic development.

Caste and Class in Indian Society/ Caste and Class in Indian Society/ Caste and Class in Indian Society/ Caste and Class in Indian Society/ Caste and Class in Indian Society/ Caste and Class in Indian Society/ Caste and Class in Indian Society/ Caste and Class in Indian Society

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