Contribution of Moral Thinkers and Philosophers from World

Contribution of Moral Thinkers and Philosophers from World has significantly influenced the development of ethical principles and human values across cultures. In the subject Ethics, the ideas of great philosophers like G.E. Moore, John Rawls, Immanuel Kant, Aristotle, Plato, and Socrates provide a deep understanding of moral reasoning, justice, and the foundations of right conduct. Their contributions continue to guide ethical thinking in modern times.

Previous year Questions

Year	Question	Marks
2016	Write the names of ‘ Cardinal Virtues ‘ of Plato.	2M
2016	What is the meaning of ‘Utilitarianism’ according to J. S  Mill ?	2M
2016	Explain the meaning of ‘Categorical Imperatives’ according to Kant.	2M
2016	Explain the postulates of morality according to Kant.	5M
2016	Define ‘Virtue’ according to Socrates.	2M
2016	What is the concept of ‘Naturalistic Fallacy’ ?	2M
2018	Define justice according to Plato.	2M
2018	Plato’s theory of justice includes courage and temperance. Are they still needed in modern society and administration ?	10M
2021	What teachings of Buddha are most relevant today and why ?	2M
2021	Teachings of leaders and reformers never grow old. Bring out their significance in the modern context.	10M
2023	What is Goodwill according to Kant?	2M
2023	What are cardinal virtues according to Plato ?	2M
2023	State the features of Deontology and Consequentialism. Which one of the two approaches is more suitable for an administrator? Why ?	10M

Philosophers	Theories
* Socrates * Plato * Aristotle * Kant * David Hume * Moore * John Rawls	* Hedonism * Epicureanism * Stoicism * Evolutionist

Normative ethics

Virtue Ethics 

• Supported by
  • Socrates
  • Plato
  • Aristotle
  • Jainism
  • Dharma (Hinduism)
  • Krishna’s character (Geeta)

Teleology / Consequentialism Theories –

• Ethical Egoism (By – Ayn Rand, Charvaka, Hedonism )
• Ethical Altruism (By – Lokasamgraha, Auguste Comte)
• Utilitarianism (By – Jeremy Bentham, J S Mill, Henry Sidgwick, Peter Singer, Chankya)

Deontology

• Supported by –
  • Immanual Kant
  • W D Ross
  • John rawls
  • karma yoga (Geeta)
  • Purva Mimamsa
  • Vedanta

Virtue Ethics

• It is more important to be a virtuous person than any other factor to do a moral act.
• Aristotle is regarded as the first systematic proponent of Virtue ethics.
• Virtue is excellence of the character which leads one to act morally.
• Eg. – A person helping others is not helping because he/she thinks that it’s her duty to do so or it maximize his/her happiness, but because he/she is an empathetic person.
• Moral virtues – kindness, benevolence, compassion, honesty, conscientiousness and gratitude etc
• Non Moral virtues – Patience, Courage, Endurance, Perseverance etc

Concept of Reason and Passion

• Passion (Emotions, Desires)
  • Passion includes values like compassion, empathy, sympathy, forgiveness, modesty, kindness
• Reason
  • Reasons include values like equity, rule of law, fortitude, prudence, discipline, scientific approach, temperance etc.
• What is important – Reason or passion while taking an ethical decision?
• Different philosophers have different ideologies regarding this
  • Eg – David Hume says that reason is bound by passion
  • Eg.  Armstrong Pame (IAS Manipur Cadre) popularly known as People’s Man raised ₹ 50 lakhs for road construction
  • Eg. Civil servants need to balance between both passion and reason

Sophist

• The word “sophist” comes from the Greek words Sophia and Sophos, which mean “wisdom” and “wise”.
• The word “sophist” has a negative connotation, meaning – a captious or fallacious reasoner.
• This school believed in subjectivity in moral values (and hence opposed universal values)
• Man > Matter 
• Practical advise [Material development]
• Science of argument [Oratory]
• Mundane Education > philosophical Knowledge 
• Proposers – 
  • Protagoras – He trained his pupils to argue from both points of view because he believed that truth could not be limited to just one side of the argument
    • Man is the measure of all things
    • Freedom of opinion
    • Principles of natural justice
  • Gorgias – His writings showcased his ability to be counter-intuitive and unpopular positions appear stronger

The Triumvirate of great ancient Greek Philosophers

• Socrates Disciple – Plato
• Plato’s Disciple – Aristotle
• Aristotle’s Disciple – Alexander The Great

Socrates

• Socrates (469-399 B.C.E.) is generally acclaimed as the father of Western philosophy.
• According to Socrates, virtue is an indicator of the moral development of the soul which shows excellence of character. Virtue is a form of knowledge, universal and objective. 
• Attaining intellectual happiness is possible only through virtue.
• According to Socrates, there is an essential and inseparable relationship between knowledge and virtue. Virtue is developed only through knowledge. Knowledge is a necessary and sufficient (contrary to Aristotle) ​​condition of being virtuous.
• Here knowledge means the ability to differentiate between good and evil, truth and false, duty and non-duty. In which there is this secret knowledge that he can never do wrong work.
• ‘Knowledge is virtue’ – Socrates

Socrates Principles and their use in administration and modern society

Principle – Knowledge is only good and ignorance is only vice.

• I know one thing that I know nothing.
• Knowledge is unity of virtues.
• Imparting knowledge to a child through education. Holistic knowledge in New Education policy 2020

Use in administration – 

• Knowledge of rule books like Code of conduct (All India Service conduct rule 1968, Rajasthan civil services conduct rules 1971, GST rule book etc)
• An administration must have knowledge about society, Demography, International relationship, Economy etc

Principle – The unexamined life is not worth living

• Human beings must understand their purpose. They must work towards betterment of society and themselves

Use in administration – 

• An administrator must have higher goals/purposes like welfare of society and becoming the agent of change
• Eg. IAS Jitendra Kumar Soni’s Charan Paduka Abhiyaan helped 1.5 Lakh children

Principle – Socrates Advocates mild asceticism.

• “Worthless people live only to eat and drink; people of worth eat and drink only to live.” –  Socrates
• Earning a legitimate amount of money by doing hard work, eating nutritious food and wearing presentable clothes is essential. However, human beings should never get distracted by these and focus should be on higher goals like welfare, moksha, Nirvana etc.

Use in administration – 

• An administrator while enjoying government machinery like a car, home, servants must not forget the real purpose.
• He must keep the principle of  बहुजन हिताय ( Bahujan’s welfare ) above than स्वांत: सुखाय (For one’s own happiness )
• All the amenities (Like car, home etc) should only be means to reach the end i.e welfare of society

Principle – Plato In his book ‘Apology’, tells that Socrates reproaches men for pursuing wealth and glory more than wisdom and virtue.

Use in administration – 

• Eg. – Prabhakar Reddy, Andhra pradesh cadre IAS officer sent his children to local government school.

Principle  – Socrates says, it is unjust to break oaths

Use in administration – 

• A civil servant must obey the constitutional oath (Oath of allegiance to the Constitution of India).
• In modern day society – A government must duly fulfill the MoU it signs with other countries, States and Industrialists.
• A person must follow his/her fundamental duties [Article 51(A)]

Principle  – His conception of  citizenship emphasizes the individual’s own powers of independent reasoning, argument and judgment.

Use in administration – 

• Supports the right to freedom under article 19.
• The Consumer Protection Act of 2019 – A person can represent the case himself/herself (No need of lawyer).
• A civil servant must treat citizens as subjects of rights rather than objects of charity

Criticism of Socrates

• Virtue involves both knowledge and habit. Without discipline, even a knowledgeable person makes mistakes. The spirit is willing, but the flesh is weak. 
• Aristotle says that Socrates overlooks the fact that it is hard to control human passions. A man may reason correctly and discover the correct moral course. However, he may be overwhelmed by his emotions and take the unethical route.
• Eg. – Corrupt civil servants despite introduction of ethics in syllabus, Many preachers / Kathavachak / Maulana / Father in church jailed for wrongdoings
• Eg. – Illegal encounter by police despite knowledge of IPC sections

Plato

According to Plato, Soul has 3 parts –

1. Rational – Thinking, Logic
2. Spirited – Emotions, Feelings, honor, victory
3. Appetitive – bodily desires

Plato Principle and their Use in administration and modern society

Wisdom – Virtue of reason or rationality

Use in administration – 

• To fight with fake news, Misunderstandings, Propaganda, Superstition, Dogmas etc.

• An administrator must be rational or logical to convince people for behavioral change.
• Eg. Convince people to use Toilets (SBM), Present them data of health improvement

Courage – Virtue of spirit

Use in administration – 

• To fight against evils in society like social dogmas , injustice with weaker sections.
• An Administrator must show courage to fight with land mafia, Sand mafia, Criminals etc 
• Eg. – Mridul Kachawa (IPS) – Operation clean sweep as Karauli SP

Temperance – Virtue of control of biological appetites

Use in administration – 

• Healthy food (Rising non communicable diseases), respect to women, Forgiveness, Moderation etc
• Article 47 – Prohibition of intoxicating drinks
  • Eg. Gandhi’s hunger strike
• Administration – To avoid misuse of power, Corruption etc.
• Rising honeytrap cases in administration and military

Justice

• Harmonious functioning of the appetitive, the spirited and the rational part of soul
• Maintaining the balance between 3 virtues (Wisdom, Courage and temperance) is called Justice
• Justice is the highest virtue.

Use in administration – 

• Use of emotional intelligence to solve real life problems [Crowd Control] 
• For equitable and fair society.

A society is just when – 

1. Wise people govern the society (Guardians)
2. A courageous person joins military and security forces
3. A temperate person does business and other production activities like Agriculture
4. These classes don‘t interfere with each other’s work

Use in administration – 

• For better governance – Exams like UPSC and RPSC (Prelims, mains and interview)
• Legislators must have knowledge of laws, rules and regulation
• Eg. Ex IFS officer Shri S Jaishankar appointed as Foreign minister.

For better security –

• Rigorous selection and training in Army, NDA, BSF etc
• Agnipath scheme

For businessman and production –

• Corporate ethics – Avoid greed

Plato’s Republic Utopian state – The Philosopher King

• Governance should be under the control of a philosopher or a ruler should become a philosopher. 

Use in administration – 

• Eg. – Marcus Aurelius (Emperors of Rome was a philosopher)
• Krishna, The king of Dwarika gave Geeta
• Ashoka gave Ashoka’s Dhamma
• Akbar’s Din-i Ilahi
• Rana Kumbha wrote several books on philosophy (vedanata Sar, Sudarshan Chakra)
• Shri Atal Bihari Vajpayee (A Poet) [Washington post called him a philosopher king]

In his book Republic – Only Citizens of an ideal state can be moral

Use in administration – 

• State values like democracy, Rule of law, Secularism, Socio, economic and political justice in a country ensures moral citizens.

Concept of good

• According to Plato, A Good life is virtuous life, largely made up of intellectual studies and rational action accompanied by some pure aesthetic pleasures
• Hence Plato considers Intellectual and Spiritual pleasure as true good rather than pleasure of senses.
• Good = Exercise of reason + Possession of truth + spiritual and intellectual development + some pure aesthetic pleasures [Like Music, Sunset etc]
• Plato regarded the idea of the good and God as identical

To do good deeds a human being must develop –

• Capability of reasoning (Read books, Have good mentors, Watch good interview and videos)
• Spiritual development – Values like temperance, sacrifice, gratification etc
• Pure aesthetic pleasure– Tasty food, Tourism, Romantic relationship etc
• For an administration – Presentable clothes, good posture, etc
• Virtue is teachable, and that men can learn morality just as they can learn any other subject. 
• Morality is not an innate quality or a contingent gift of nature. Moral beings are not born but made through education
• Introduction of ethics syllabus in UPSC and RPSC – Value induction programs (Mission karmyogi) 
• Nolan committee
• 2nd ARC
• Code of ethics

Education should consist of both culture and athletics

• New Education policy 2020 – Cognitive development + Physical development + Vocational education
• Eg.  – Five Fold Education (Panchmukhi Shiksha) in Banasthali Vidyapeeth [ Physical, Aesthetic, Practical, Moral and Intellectual]

Criticism of Plato

• Virtues are more than 4
• A Utopian state is imaginary and absolute just society is not possible
• In his The Republic, he advocates for a hereditary military oligarchy and opposes democracy.
  • A large section of the population – farmers, artisans and traders – will be permanently excluded from political power.
• According to him, enlightened philosophers should rule the society, but there is no unanimity or consensus on which ideology is the most enlightened.
  • Even our constitutional makers did not find it suitable to have minimum qualification for MPs/MLAs/ministers
• This conception allows inequalities of power and privilege to exist.
• He advocated censorship which is against the principle of liberty. 
• Relevance in Modern context
  • In 1975, the Indira Gandhi government imposed censorship of the press during The Emergency.
  • The Cinematograph Act, 1952 gives the government the power to censor films before they are released to the public

Aristotle

Aristotle Principle and Use in administration & society

Principle – Happiness and virtue go together. (Summum Bonum) i.e The highest and ultimate good is happiness. 

• This happiness must come from intellectual pleasures and philosophical contemplation.
• However, Aristotle was a practical man and hence common sources of happiness like friendship, family bonds and creature comforts is also acceptable (good food, a comfortable home)

Use in modern society – 

• Happiness from drug abuse, pornography, erotic literature, Violent games, mindless consumption of social media content and bad company should be replaced by happiness from meditation, physical exercise, good literature and good company of friends.

Use in administration – 

• Being happy by service delivery, completion of duty or even going beyond call of duty.
• Eg. – 40 Nashik Officers Go Beyond Call of Duty to Voluntarily Take Responsibility of 56 Covid Orphans.

Principle – Rejects Socrates’ idea that knowledge is the highest virtue. Along with knowledge, constant exercise of self-control is necessary.

• Being a practical thinker, Aristotle recognises that even a virtuous man cannot be happy if circumstances conspire against him

Use in administration – 

• Along with a service attitude a civil servant must be fit and fine to deliver justice in true sense. An officer with bad health or fortune would not be able to do justice with society. 
• Eg. – Despite having knowledge of IPC sections, PCA 1988 and ethical values, many Civil servants are involved in corrupt practice [SSP Divya mittal]

Principle of Justice – Justice is a virtue of the State and not of the individual.

2 Types – 

• Distributive – Those who are more meritorious will get higher rewards.
  • Gold, Silver and bronze medals in olympics.
  • Prime Minister’s Awards for Excellence in Public Administration and Performance based promotion.
• Corrective – Inflicting punishment for wrongdoing.
  • Jail upto lifetime for paper leak
  • Penetrative sexual assault on a child under 16 ➡️ minimum 20 years in prison

Principle of virtues – 

• Intellectual virtues – Derived from ability to reason (Rationality/logic). It is a kind of wisdom acquired from teachers.
• Ethical virtues – Derived from emotions and feelings (passions)
• Note – Intellectual virtues rank higher than ethical virtues.

Intellectual and ethical virtues together constitute happiness. Aristotle rejects the ascetic ideal. The ascetic wants to completely eliminate appetites and passions from the human heart.

The principle of Golden mean – Virtue is a mean between two extremes. It lies in moderation. Every virtue lies in between two vices 

Examples

• Courage between cowardice and foolhardiness
• Politeness between rudeness and flattery 
• Ambition between greed and Slothful
• Empathy between Apathy and emotional/mental breakdown.
  • Eg. – IPS Chhaya Sharma while Solving the Nirbhaya Case faced emotional breakdown
• Political neutrality between Flattery and hostility/hatred towards politicians.
  • Eg. – I don’t hate politicians. I hate bad politics – T.N. Seshan

Views on state –

• Aristotle takes a more balanced view of the State giving due importance both to government and citizens.
• In the State both the whole and the parts are real; the whole has its end, life and rights; similarly, each part has its life, end and rights.
  • Plato was a pure collectivist (Individual has no rights)
  • Social contract theory is pure individualist

Use in administration – 

• On one hand, An administrator must be accountable towards the state (Legislature and Judiciary) and on the other hand responsible towards betterment of its citizens by implementing the policies right. 
• Eg. – Traffic police completing the target of no. of challan/fine must keep in mind that due procedure is followed and no citizen is harassed in doing so.

Freedom of will –

• Men can choose between good and evil.
• He criticizes Socrates for rejecting freedom of will. Socratic doctrine of knowledge as virtue implies that people who know what is right will necessarily follow it. 

Use in administration –

Hence an administrator must respect – 

• Article 19 (Right to freedom )
• Article 25-28 ( Right to freedom of religion ).
• Also ensures that other’s right is not violated

In Aristotle’s Rhetoric – defining the terms logos, pathos, and ethos, which are three modes of engagement

Use in administration – 

• Very important for an administrator to follow this during persuasion – 
• Logos – Appeal the reason/logic
  • [Eg. – Every dollar spent on sanitation has a return of US $5.50, according to WHO research]
• Pathos – Appeal the emotions
  • Like Aapno rajasthan, Ujalo bhiwaro campaign for SBM
• Ethos – Use credibility or authority
  • Ethos meaning character
  • Eg. – Inviting national sportsperson to motivate youth

Aristotle Criticism

• Democratic thinkers criticize him for his Aristocratic view on politics.
• Aristotle accepts slavery; he takes it for granted that husbands are superior to wives and fathers to children.
• His ideas are placid whereas thinkers should bring revolutionary changes in the world.

 Consequentialism

• Ethical Egoism –  An action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more favorable than unfavorable only to the agent performing the action.
  • Proposers –
    • Ayn Rand
    • Charvaka
    • Hedonism
• Ethical Altruism – An action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more favorable than unfavorable to everyone except the agent.
  • Proposers –
    • Lokasamgraha (Geeta)
    • Auguste Comte
• Utilitarianism – An action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more favorable than unfavorable to ‘everyone’.
  • Proposers –
    • Jeremy Bentham
    • J S Mill
    • Henry Sidgwick
    • Peter Singer
    • Chankya

Hedonism

Those theories that regard happiness or pleasure as the supreme end of life.

Psychological Hedonism – 

• Men always seek pleasure.
• Pleasure is always that which serves as the inducement to action.
• Pleasure and pain are the only possible motives for action.
• Psychological hedonism is simply a statement of fact.
• Also known as motivational hedonism.

Ethical hedonism – 

• This theory suggest that men ought always to seek pleasure 
• Also called normative hedonism.

Gross hedonism –

• No difference in pleasure in terms of quality. It can’t be superior or inferior 
• There is only quantitative difference.

Refined hedonism 

• Pleasure has both quantitative and qualitative differences.
• Hence Pleasure can be superior or inferior.

UTILITARIANISM

Principles and use in administration and society

Quantitative utilitarianism –

• Founder – Jeremy Bentham
• Book – Introduction to The Principles of Morals and Legislation
• Meaning – Greatest happiness of the greatest number of people
• 7 Aspects of pleasure
  •  Intensity
  • Duration
  • Certainty
  • Nearness in time
  • Fecundity – likelihood of leading to other pleasures
  • Its purity (freedom from pain)
  • Number of people it will include
• Might lead to immoral acts many times.
  • Example :- Organ transplant of a drunken man to 3 nobel laureates violates the human rights of that drunken man.

Use in administration – 

• Reaching welfare schemes to the last mile and maximum people.
• Eg. –
  • PDS ration to 80 crore people
  • More than 11 crore toilets build under SBM
  • More than 10 crore beneficiaries under Ujjawala.

Qualitative Utilitarianism – 

• Proposer – J S Mill
• Intellectual pleasures are better (Higher) than sensuous pleasures
• Higher pleasures includes mental, aesthetic, and moral pleasures
• Since human being are socially connected to each other and are enlightened by education and culture, they are not egoistic in nature (utterly selfish) and hence are concerned about individual happiness and general happiness of society
• To do as you are done, and to love your neighbor as yourself, constitute the ideal perfection of utilitarian morality
• Some happiness are greater than others

Use in administration and modern society – 

• Empowering people 
• Skill development under skill india mission.
• The National Education Policy (NEP), 2020 also provides for ethical reasoning, traditional Indian values and all basic human and Constitutional values such as seva, ahimsa, swachchhata, satya, nishkam karma, shanti, sacrifice, tolerance, diversity, pluralism, righteous conduct, gender sensitivity, respect for elders, respect for all people.

Since human beings are socially connected to each other and are enlightened by education and culture, they are not egoistic in nature (utterly selfish) and hence are concerned about individual happiness and general happiness of society. 

Use in administration and modern society – 

• Acts like free food in Gurudwara, Blood donation camps, crowdfunding through social media, neki ki diwar are examples of this attitude।

ACT vs RULE UTILITARIANISM

ACT UTILITARIANISM

• Act utilitarianism focuses on the consequences of individual actions and assesses them based on their expected utility or benefit. 
• It evaluates actions separately, considering each one in terms of its effect on happiness or pleasure. 
• Act utilitarianism means an act may be considered morally right even if it violates traditional notions of justice or individual rights.

RULE UTILITARIANISM

• Rule utilitarianism considers larger sets of actions rather than just individual acts. 
• It looks at how certain rules or norms can maximize utility for society when followed by everyone. 
• This approach considers justice and individual rights, as it promotes rules that benefit everyone in the long run without disadvantaging certain groups more than others.
• Hence, Rule utilitarianism is a link between consequentialism and deontology.

Epicureanism

• Given by Epicurus
• देसी भाषा में – Virtue ethics and Consequentialism (Teleology) के बीच की बात ।

Principles and Use in administration and society

• Epicureanism is an ethical doctrine that holds that pleasure is the highest good but a person should seek the mental and intellectual pleasure over physical (Sensual) pleasure for permanent happiness.
• Virtue has no intrinsic value; it derives value from the pleasure which accompanies virtuous actions.
• They were supporters of moral hedonism i.e
  • Mental pleasure is higher than physical
  • Happiness should be from tranquility, peace of mind, absence of fear and pain
  • Read literature, art and philosophy to maximize pleasure.
  • The route to happiness lies through moderation, simplicity and cheerfulness.
  • Men should avoid momentary pleasures which may often lead to greater pains later.

Use in administration and society – 

• Momentary pleasures – drug abuse, pornography, erotic literature, Violent games, mindless consumption of social media content and bad company should be replaced by happiness from meditation, spiritual discourse, physical exercise, good literature and good company of friends.
• An administrator should maximize pleasure by
  • Completion of targets on time
  • Innovative ways to solve problems of citizen
  • Helping the lowest section of society (Gandhian Talisman)
  • Showing good leadership traits in organization etc

• He also proposed religious skepticism and spoke against superstition and divine intervention. Because religious doctrines proposed fears of gods, death, retribution and hell which are against happiness.
• He accepts the existence of gods but proposes that god does not interfere in human affairs.

Use in administration – 

• IPC section 302 – Against superstitious practices like witchcraft.
• Maharashtra Anti Superstition and black magic Act 2013

• Epicurus borrows his philosophy from Democritus. Just like any other element, Soul is also made of atoms. Once a person dies, The atoms are scattered and there is no future life. Hence the fear of heaven or hell is no more there.

Use in administration – 

• Similarly, An administrator must not have fear of post retirement life and should focus on his/her duties.

STOICISM

• Founder – Zeno ( School of Hellenistic philosophy)
• Other famous stoics – Marcus Aurelius
• Stoics define virtue as life according to reason or logic. Morality consists in rational action.
  • Although Aristotle regarded reason as the guide to human conduct, he recognised passions and appetites as embedded in human nature.
  • In contrast, Stoics recommend extremely rigorous asceticism.
• Virtue has to be practiced not as a means to happiness but as a duty.

Principle and use in administration and society

• Freedom of will Cannot exist in a world governed by necessity. Men imagine that they generally act voluntarily. But this is only their manner of speaking and does not mean the absence of necessity.

Use in administration and society – 

• Eg., vested interest of a judge in judgment [Money, Caste, Connection etc].
• An administrator is bound by laws, rules and regulation and hence can’t do innovative work

• The world is one and is ruled by one God (cosmopolitanism)

Use in modern society – 

• Promote secularism and religious tolerance [Ram-Rahim, Ganga-Jamuna Tehzeeb]

• Dutifulness – Men should follow not their inclinations or caprices but their reason

Use in administration – 

• An administrator must follow the law of the land, code of conduct, senior’s direction first. In case of discretion he/she must have a welfare attitude.

Deontology

Proposers – 

• Immanual Kant – Follow your duty
• W D Ross – Concept of prima facie duties
• John rawls – Fairness in process
• Karma yoga (Geeta) – Doing your duty impartially
• Purva Mimamsa – An action which follows the principles of Vedas

Principle and Use in administration and society

• Deon = Duty and Logos = Reason
• Deontology is a moral philosophy which decides good or bad on the basis of action itself rather than outcome or the actor.
• If the action follows a certain set of rules or principles, then it is ethical.

Use in administration – 

• An administrator must follow rules and regulation irrespective of sentimental departure or vested gains
• Eg. – T N Seshan sir being chief election commissioner, Disqualified 1488 candidates in 1991 Lok sabha election because they failed to submit an account of their expenses.

Immanual Kant(Father of deontology)

• An action is ethical only if it follows some rules or principles as a duty.
• In his book – Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals, he gave 6 types of unacceptable vices – 
  1. Deception
  2. Theft
  3. Suicide
  4. Breaking Promises
  5. Idleness
  6. Selfishness

 Principle and use in administration and society

Principle – Duty for the duty’s sake. According to Kant the only thing that is good in itself is the “good will” i.e if the intentions to do a work is good then the work itself is good or moral 

Use in administration – 

• Even when a civil servant’s work is not praised or recognised. Even if he/she is transferred frequently, Zeal to do good work should never go down. 
• Eg. – Ashok Khemka sir was transferred 55 times in 30 years by state governments after he exposed corruption in the departments he was posted in.

Principle – Categorical imperative

• These are moral laws – ought to be done simply because it is right
• Based on reason and duty, applicable to all rational beings.
• Categorical imperatives are the foundation of Kant’s moral philosophy 
• There are 3 formulation of Categorical imperative –
  • 1st formulation – Law of universality
  • 2nd formulation of categorical imperative – Human being as an end 
  • 3rd Formulation of categorical imperative – Law of autonomy

1st formulation – Law of universality

• A rational moral agent should act only in such a way that the maxim of his action becomes a universal law.
• People should follow such rational universal principles without relying on personal sentiments.
• Eg. – Don’t steal, You shouldn’t kill
• Universal Ethical laws in Indian society – Satya (Truth), Lok Sangraha, Dharma (Righteousness), Vasudev kutumbakam, Asteya, Non-possession (Aparigraha), Ahimsa, Pancha Mahabhutas etc

2nd formulation of categorical imperative – Human being as an end 

• Act in such a way that you treat humanity as an end and not as a means.

Use in administration and society – 

• This supports the modern day ideas on human rights
  • Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993
  • National Human Rights Commission
  • Article 17 – Abolition of Untouchability
  • Universal declaration of human rights (UN Charter) India is a signatory [establishes the “inherent dignity” of all human being]
  • Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955
  • All social welfare schemes ensure the dignity of human beings and hence must be implemented in letter and spirit.

3rd Formulation of categorical imperative – Law of autonomy

• Moral rules arises from free and rational will
• Kant traces the origin of moral law to man’s rationality or reason

Use in administration and society –

• Free and compulsory education – Article 21A as fundamental right [86th Amendment, 2002].
• A healthy body and sound financial condition also promote free and rational will.
• Eg. Ayushman Bharat, JAM trinity (Financial inclusion)
• Women empowerment – Work on health, Nutrition, Education make her independent in true sense.

Kant’s 3 Postulates of morality – 

1. Freedom of the Soul – For an action to be moral, it must be done freely, not out of compulsion or external influence.
   1. Ex – Sense of altruism in businessmen like Ajim Premji [Goes beyond legally mandated CSR]
2. Immortality of the Soul – Kant believed that believing in immortality is crucial for motivating individuals to strive for moral perfection and live a life aligned with the moral law. The possibility of a continued existence allows for the hope of eventually achieving the highest good, which is unattainable in this lifetime
3. Existence of God – God is a moral ruler who ensures that virtue is rewarded and vice is punished. God provides rational hope for justice
   • Example: A virtuous person may live a life of hardship, but belief in God gives hope that justice will prevail, and goodness will ultimately be rewarded

John Rawls

 Principle and use in administration and society

For a justified and moral society, We need to adopt 2 principles –

1. Equal liberty should be given to all. Like political liberty, freedom of speech and assembly, liberty of conscience and freedom of thought etc
2. Social and economic inequalities should be allowed only when –
   1. It gives benefit to the least advantaged (Like disables, SC/ST etc)
   2. It is for a particular post and position [But opportunity to apply for these posts and positions should be open to all]. Ex – special privileges to president of india

Use in administration and society –

• Article 14 – equality before the law or equal protection of the laws
• Article 15 – No discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth.
• Article 16 – All citizens have equal opportunity in matters of public employment
• Article 19 – Freedom of expression 
• Article 21 – Right to life and personal liberty
• Article 25-28 – Freedom of religion in India
• Reservation – Article 334 (Reservation in parliament)
• Right to person with disabilities act 2016
• 103rd amendment act – 10% reservation to EWS

Principle of veil of ignorance – 

• Those doing justice should be behind a veil where they are ignorant about specific information like class, status, intelligence, abilities, Strength, future plans etc. This is called ‘Original position’. They only have general knowledge about the facts of “life and society”

Use in administration and society –

• An administrator must work towards betterment of its citizen irrespective of religion, race, caste, sex, status, strength etc.
• Eg. – Rahul kumar, A Bihar District Magistrate Eats A Meal Cooked By A Widow to end superstition of ‘bad women’.
• Tweet by IAS Rahul Kumar –

Evolutionist

Proposers

1. Herbert Spencer
2. Leslie stephen
3. Samuel Alexander

Principle and Use in administration and society

• Just like in evolution, survival of the fittest is applicable on moral principles also. Those moral principles survive which are more important for human & social development and are more rational.
  • Eg – Capitalism survived over communism in most democracies. Welfare states replaced police states.

• With time, we must go towards absolute morality i.e there is no contradiction between individual interests and social interests.
• Hence, an administrator should focus on social growth. His/her personal growth is vested in social growth.

• Moral rules of the the future would be more superior than the moral rules of the past or present.
  • Eg. – Modern ethics like Feminist Ethics, Black ethics, Environmental Ethics, Bioethics, Digital Ethics, etc 
• In December 2023, the Indian Parliament passed a bill to repeal 76 obsolete laws

• During evolutionary fights, some bad morals developed like – Anger, aggressive, ruthless, and self serving.
• While some good morals also developed – Love, Care, Social capital, Family values etc.
• Human beings must use values like temperance, calmness, rationality etc to suppress bad morals.
• People with rationality ahead of contemporary times may not be accepted by society and hence assassinated.
  • Eg. – Gandhi, Socrates, Abraham Lincoln etc.
• An administrator must use common masses language and simpler tools to interact with citizens for better service delivery.
  • Eg. – Use of whatsapp for grievance redressal and blood donation by J K Soni sir (now Raktkosh app)

G.E. Moore – Naturalistic fallacy

• The naturalistic fallacy rejects the idea that what is found in nature is good. 
• It was given by G.E. Moore
• It’s also called the is-ought fallacy
• It Supports the Is-Ought Gap by David Hume 
• Ex – If we follow the Is-ought theory = Old age Diseases are natural and hence good in nature and should not be treated. But naturalistic fallacy rejects it and forces us to treat sick people 
• Ex – We shouldn’t interfere when a wild animal attacks a human — it’s just the animal’s natural instinct. Although attacking is a natural behavior for a wild animal, morally, we have an obligation to protect human life. So intervention is justified

Practice Questions

Question	Marks
Define The Golden Mean of Aristotle	2M
List all the formulations of categorical imperative by Kant and explain with examples how they can be used for better administration	5M
Socratic philosophy is equally relevant today in modern society and Indian administration. Explain with examples	10M

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