Imperialism and colonialism in Asia and Africa

mperialism and Colonialism in Asia and Africa were major developments in World History that transformed the political, social, and economic structures of these regions. European powers extended their dominance over Asia and Africa, leaving deep and lasting influences that shaped the modern world.

Imperialism and colonialism

Imperialism

• Imperialism refers to the practice of extending the power, control, or rule of a country over the political and economic life of territories beyond its borders.
• This control may be achieved through military means, colonialism, or other methods of domination.
• Exploitation is the essential feature of imperialism.
• Neo-Colonialism: When imperial powers exploit economically less developed but independent countries.

Aspect	Colonialism	Imperialism
Definition	The practice of acquiring and controlling colonies, usually by settlement.(ACTUAL PRACTICE)	The policy of extendinginfluence over the political, economic, and social life of other territories through diplomacy or military force.(IDEA)
Focus	Establishing settlements and exploiting resources of the colony.Eg – Gold, glory, and God motivations for Spanish explorers.	Focusing on creating and expanding an empire
Methods	Physical occupation and direct control of a territory.	Indirect control through political pressure, economic dominance, or military intervention.
Examples	European colonization of India, Australia, North America, and Brazil.	American dominance over Puerto Rico and the Philippines, Soviet control over Eastern Europe.
Control	Direct governance and administration by the colonizing country.	Control through indirect means such as puppet governments, economic control, or military presence.
Economic Impact	Exploitation of natural resources and labour of the colony Eg. – British exploitation of Indian cotton and tea.	Economic dominance through trade agreements, investments, and control of markets.Eg. -British economic dominance in Egypt through control of the Suez Canal
Historical Context	Prominent during the 15th to early 20th centuries (Age of Exploration).Eg. Spanish and Portuguese empires)	More common in the late 19th to 20th centuries (New Imperialism and beyond).Eg. – Scramble for Africa (late 19th century)
Impact on Indigenous	Displacement, exploitation, and often destruction of indigenous populations.Eg. – Native American displacement by European settlers in North America	Manipulation of local politics and economies, often leading to dependency and instability. Eg. – Political instability in Latin America due to U.S. interventions

Phases of Imperialism

1. First Phase (16th – 18th Century)
   • Imperialism began in the 16th century with the voyages of discovery. Portugal, Spain, Holland, England, and France built vast colonial empires.
   • By the 18th century, the first phase of imperialism was ending. Britain’s conquest of India was completed by the mid-19th century, and European powers had started penetrating China.
   • This period of colonisation fueled the growth of capitalism and the Industrial Revolution.
2. Second Phase (1875 – 1914)
   • New Imperialism was driven by the economic needs created by the Industrial Revolution.
   • Industrialized countries, such as Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, the USA, and Japan, expanded their control.
   • These powers established political and economic control over much of the world through colonial rule, spheres of influence, and economic agreements.

Conditions that Facilitated the Growth of Imperialism

1. Demands Created by the Industrial Revolution
   • The Industrial Revolution caused a huge increase in the production of goods.
   • Capitalist systems of production emerged, whose main goal was profit. This pushed countries to find new markets for their goods.
   • European countries imposed heavy tariffs on imported goods to protect their industries. It led them to seek markets in Asia and Africa, where industrialization had not yet taken place.
   • European powers also needed raw materials like cotton (from India and Egypt), rubber (from Congo and the East Indies), food grains, tea, and tobacco. To secure these, they altered the production patterns in the colonies.
   • By the late 19th century, European investors found Asia and Africa attractive for capital investment because of cheap labour and raw materials.
2. Improvement in Transportation and Communication
   • Steamships and railroads allowed faster movement of goods between Europe and its colonies.(e.g., British steamships transporting cotton from India).
   • Railways and inland waterways in conquered territories helped European powers extract raw materials and distribute manufactured products in new markets. (e.g., the Congo railway system).
3. Extreme Nationalism: Pride and Power
   • The late 19th century saw a rise in chauvinistic nationalism, with countries like Germany and Italy aiming to boost national pride by acquiring colonies.
4. The ‘Civilizing Mission’
   • Many Europeans believed imperialism was a noble effort to “civilize” what they perceived as backward peoples.
   • Prominent figures like Rudyard Kipling advocated the idea of the “white man’s burden”. Jules Ferry, in France, said, ‘Superior races have the duty of civilizing the inferior races’.
   • Christian missionaries also played their part in promoting the idea of imperialism.
   • This ideology justified the conquest and domination of Asia and Africa in the name of spreading civilization.
5. Explorers and Adventurers
   • Mapping Unknown Regions:
     • David Livingstone (Africa): Mapped the interior, enabling European colonization.
     • Christopher Columbus (1492), Vasco da Gama (1498), Amerigo Vespucci (1500), Ferdinand Magellan (1519):Opened new trade routes and expanded European influence in the Americas, Asia, and around the globe.
   • Conquering Difficult Terrains:
     • Richard Burton & Henry Morton Stanley: Explored Africa’s interior, laying the groundwork for colonization.
6. Role of Inventions and Technology
   • Compass & Astrolabe: Enabled long-distance navigation, opening new territories.
   • Caravel Ship: Facilitated ocean voyages, crucial for European expansion.
   • Gunpowder & Firearms: Gave European powers military superiority over indigenous populations.
   • Printing Press: Spread knowledge of new lands, driving further exploration.
   • Steamships & Telegraph: Enabled faster travel and communication with colonies.
   • Quinine (Medicine for Malaria): Helped Europeans survive in tropical regions, aiding colonization.

Conditions that Favoured Imperialism in Asia and Africa

1. Industrial Backwardness : The Industrial Revolution had not reached Asia and Africa, leaving their production methods backward in comparison to Europe.
2. These continents lacked the military power to resist European advances effectively.
3. Political Weakness : By the 19th century, many powerful empires in Asia and Africa had declined. Strong nation-states had not yet fully formed. This made it easier for European powers to gain control with little resistance.

The Conquest of Asia

The British in India:

• The decline of the Mughal Empire gave the British and French a chance to conquer India.
• The East India Company (founded in 1600) defeated France in 1763 and began controlling India, starting with Bengal.
• After the 1857 Revolt, the British government took direct control, completing their conquest.
• The Industrial Revolution flooded India with British goods.
• Millions of pounds were drained from India to England as profits and tributes.
• Railways were built to extend markets for British goods. Tea, coffee, and indigo plantations grew with British support.

Imperialism in China:

• Opium Wars and Foreign Domination
  • Britain smuggled opium into China, harming the Chinese population. When China resisted in 1839, the Opium Wars started, resulting in British victory. China was forced to open five key ports to British trade.
  • Britain gained extraterritorial rights and took control of Hong Kong. Other Western powers, including France, soon followed suit with similar unequal treaties.
• Spheres of Influence
  • After losing a war to Japan over Korea, China ceded territories and paid heavy reparations. 
  • Foreign powers, including France, Russia, Britain, and Germany, carved China into spheres of influence, controlling key regions.
• Open Door Policy and Boxer Rebellion
  • The Open Door Policy (suggested by the USA) allowed all countries equal trading rights in China, stopping further division.
  • The Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901), an anti-foreign uprising, was crushed by foreign powers. Foreign powers imposed more control with the help of Chinese warlords.

Imperialism in South and Southeast Asia

• European Expansion
  • Sri Lanka was successively occupied by the Portuguese, Dutch, and British, who introduced large-scale tea and rubber plantations.
  • Britain gained control over Malaya and Singapore, securing dominance over Far Eastern trade routes via the Straits of Malacca.
  • The Dutch expanded their control over Indonesia, particularly the resource-rich Moluccas islands.
• French Colonization of Indo-China
  • Indo-China (now Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia) was colonized by France after several wars.
• British Influence in Burma and Thailand
  • Burma was annexed by Britain in 1886 after a war with France.
  • Thailand remained independent but came under heavy influence from both Britain and France.
• American Control of the Philippines
  • The United States took control of the Philippines following a brief revolt.

Imperialism in Central and Western Asia

• The Great Game: Britain vs. Russia
  • Britain and Russia engaged in the Great Game, competing for dominance over Central Asia, Iran, Afghanistan, and Tibet.
  • By the late 19th century, Russia controlled much of Central Asia, while Britain maintained its influence through strategic agreements.
• Spheres of Influence in Iran
  •  In 1907, England and Russia reached an agreement to divide Iran into three zones. 
  • Meanwhile, oil had been found in Iran and British and American oil interests became powerful.
• British Influence in Afghanistan and Tibet
  • Russia agreed to recognize Afghanistan as being outside her influence and Britain agreed not to annex Afghanistan as long as her ruler remained loyal to her 
  • After the overthrow of the monarchy in China in 1911, Tibet increasingly passed under British influence.

Japan’s Rise as an Imperial Power

• Modernization and Expansion
  • Meiji Restoration (1868): This period of rapid modernization transformed Japan into an industrial and military power.
  • Japan’s expansion began with its control over Korea and parts of China.
• Russo-Japanese War
  • Japan shocked the world by defeating Russia in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05), becoming the first Asian nation to defeat a European power.
  • Japan annexed Korea in 1910 and continued to expand its empire at the expense of China.
• By the time of World War I, Japan had emerged as a significant imperial power.

Imperialism in Africa

• African cultures and civilizations had global contacts since ancient times.
• In the late 15th century, European exploration opened a new phase in African history.
• This phase involved the establishment of trade relations, but it was most notably marked by the slave trade.
• By the early 19th century, the slave trade had lost its prominence as European nations shifted their focus to colonial exploitation of Africa’s natural resources.

(A) The Slave Trade

• Portugal established a slave market in Lisbon, from which Spain bought slaves for their colonies in the Americas.
• Arabs initially dominated the slave trade, later joined by African chiefs who traded slaves for firearms.
• Europeans also raided villages directly, capturing and transporting Africans to work in the Americas.
• English merchants (e.g., Sir John Hawkins) and the monarchy (e.g., Elizabeth I) soon entered the trade, profiting from the sale of African people. 
• These slaves were then shipped to the Americas. Many slaves died during the journey, and those who survived were forced to work under brutal conditions in plantations. It is estimated that less than half of those captured survived the journey.
• By the 19th century, European focus shifted away from slavery towards other forms of colonial exploitation. European powers then sought to directly conquer Africa’s territories.

(B) The Scramble for Africa

• Up to the mid-19th century, much of Africa remained unexplored by Europeans, with European control limited to coastal regions.
  • The French controlled Algeria in the north, and the British occupied Cape Colony in the south (previously a Dutch colony). The Dutch settlers, known as Boers, were the only significant European settler population in Africa.
• A scramble for African territories began soon after, with European nations racing to claim and divide almost the entire continent.

(C) The Role of Explorers, Traders, and Missionaries

• Explorers aroused European interest in Africa by mapping and reporting on its interior (e.g., David Livingstone and Henry Stanley).
• Missionaries saw Africa as a place to spread Christianity and contributed to the cultural justification for imperialism.
• The interest generated by explorers and missionaries was soon exploited by traders seeking economic opportunities.
• European governments, in turn, sent troops to secure control over the regions of interest.

Reasons for the Speed of European Conquest

1. Economic Power: European imperialist nations had far greater economic resources than African states.
2. Military Superiority: Europeans had advanced military technology, such as the Maxim gun, while Africans were often using outdated firearms or traditional weapons like axes and knives.
3. Political Disunity: African states were fragmented and not united. Rivalries between African rulers made them vulnerable, as some sought European help against local enemies.

The Berlin Conference and the Partition of Africa

• To avoid conflict among themselves, European powers held the Berlin Conference (1884-85), where they discussed how to divide Africa. No African representatives were present at the conference.
• The Anglo-German agreement (1890) was an example of how European rivalries were resolved diplomatically: Britain was given Uganda, while Germany received Heligoland.
• Many fraudulent treaties were signed between European powers and African rulers. Some African chiefs unknowingly signed away their territories, believing they were only seeking military support. European powers then claimed these lands as protectorates and began occupying them.
• Paper Partition : The division of Africa at the Berlin Conference is often referred to as the “paper partition,” as the final conquest and establishment of colonial rule took much longer.
• Many African boundaries were drawn arbitrarily in European conference rooms, with around 30% of African borders being straight lines.

West and Central Africa

• In 1878, King Leopold II funded H.M. Stanley to create the International Congo Association. Stanley made 400 African chiefs sign away their land for small goods. The Congo was brutally exploited for rubber and ivory, with locals forced into hard labor. Leopold made over 20 million dollars from the Congo.
• Congo Free State became known for extreme cruelty, such as cutting off villagers’ hands.
• In 1908, Belgium took control, renaming it Belgian Congo.
• Congo’s resources, like gold, diamonds, and copper, attracted European investors.
• Britain took control of Nigeria for resources and slaves.
• Britain also colonized Gambia, Ashanti, Gold Coast, and Sierra Leone.
• France took French Congo and extended its control in West Africa.
• Germany colonized Togoland, Cameroons, and South-west Africa, killing many locals.
• Spain held Rio de Oro and Spanish Guinea, and Portugal had Angola and Guinea.
• Liberia remained independent but came under U.S. influence through American investors.

South Africa

• The Dutch established the Cape Colony, which Britain took over in the early 1800s.
• The Dutch settlers, called Boers, founded the Orange Free State and Transvaal.
• Cecil Rhodes made a fortune in mining in Rhodesia (now Zambia and Zimbabwe).
• The Boer War (1899-1902) ended with a British victory, forming the Union of South Africa.

East Africa:

• Before 1884, only Portuguese Mozambique was colonized in East Africa.
• Later, France took Madagascar, and Britain and Germany divided East Africa.
• Tanganyika went to Germany but was given to Britain after WWI. Kenya and Ruanda-Urundi were divided between Britain and Belgium.

Italy-Ethiopia:

• Italy colonized Somaliland and Eritrea but failed to conquer Ethiopia after losing the Battle of Adowa in 1896.
• Italy briefly took Ethiopia in 1935 but couldn’t hold it for long.

North Africa:

• France conquered Algeria in 1830, after 40 years of fighting local resistance.
• France also took Tunisia and Morocco.
• Britain took Egypt in 1882 to protect the Suez Canal and made it a British protectorate in 1914.
• Sudan was jointly ruled by Britain and Egypt, but Britain took full control after defeating the Mahdi forces in 1898.

Rhodesia:

• Cecil Rhodes expanded British control in southern Africa, giving his name to Rhodesia (now Zambia and Zimbabwe).

The Scramble for Africa:

• By the early 20th century, almost all of Africa was colonized by European powers.
• Only Liberia and Ethiopia remained independent.

Impact on Africa

Economic Exploitation:

• Ruthless Extraction of Resources: Limited resources like rubber were ruthlessly extracted, as seen in the Congo Free State under King Leopold II of Belgium. 
• Unfair Market Practices: Policies like mercantile capitalism ensured colonies didn’t receive fair market prices for their minerals and resources.
• Colonial Rivalries: These prevented the development of an integrated market.
• Human Rights Abuse: Africans were subjected to labor taxes (corvée labor), where they had to work a set number of days on public projects without pay. The Congo was notorious for using forced labor to extract ivory and rubber.
• Dependence on Single Commodities: The introduction of cash crops made many African nations dependent on one commodity. It made them vulnerable to market fluctuations. For instance, Ivory Coast relied heavily on cocoa, and Cuba was reduced to a sugar-producing country.
• Unequal Distribution of Wealth: Wealth from Africa, including gold and diamonds from South Africa, was concentrated in the hands of Europeans. It created extreme economic inequalities favoring colonial powers and local collaborators.

Social Structures and Cultural Disruption:

• Division and Fragmentation: European powers drew arbitrary borders during the Scramble for Africa, dividing ethnic groups and leading to long-term conflicts.
• Cultural Suppression: Missionary activities, especially by Portugal and Spain, sought to erode indigenous cultures and replace them with European Christian values.
• Local languages and customs were often discouraged, replaced with European languages (French, English, Portuguese).
• White Settlers as Elite: White settlers in many colonies became the elite class and exploited the black native population.
• Slavery’s Impact: Slavery destroyed families and instilled a psychological inferiority complex among African peoples.
• Racism: The idea of white racial superiority was widely promoted, further entrenching inequality.
• Mass Killings: Atrocities like those in the Congo Free State (1885–1908) under King Leopold II are considered some of the most brutal acts in colonial history.

Impact on Trade and Infrastructure:

• Control of Trade Routes: European powers controlled and diverted African trade to European ports, crippling local commerce.
• Limited Infrastructure Development: Infrastructure projects, such as Britain’s Cape to Cairo railway, were primarily designed to serve colonial interests and facilitate resource extraction rather than benefiting local populations.

Political Domination:

• Loss of Sovereignty: The Berlin Conference (1884-85) formalized the partition of Africa among colonial powers without regard for indigenous political structures.
• Divide and Rule Policy: European powers used the strategy of divide and rule, creating ethnic tensions that later erupted into conflicts, such as the Hutu-Tutsi genocide in Rwanda.

Legacy of Underdevelopment:

• Neglect of Health and Education: Colonies like Belgian Congo were left with minimal infrastructure for healthcare and education. At independence, Belgium Congo had only 17 graduates and no doctors, lawyers, or engineers.
• Post-Independence Struggles: Former colonies, like Nigeria, inherited uneven development, with disparities in education, healthcare, and infrastructure.
• Persistent Challenges: Countries like the Democratic Republic of Congo, rich in resources, still face political instability and underdevelopment despite their potential.

Conclusion:

• European colonization in Africa left a deep and lasting impact on the continent’s socio-economic and political landscape. The exploitation of resources, cultural suppression, and political manipulation created challenges that continue to affect Africa today.

Impact on Asia

वैसे तो अफ़्रीका वाले पॉइंट्स यहाँ भी चिपकाने है , फिर भी कुछ नयी एप्रोच से और एशिया स्पेसिफिक पॉइंट्स

Political Impact:

• Loss of Sovereignty
  • India: British East India Company started ruling India after defeating France (1763), with full Crown control after the 1857 Revolt.
  • China: Following the Opium Wars (1839-42, 1856-60), China ceded Hong Kong and opened ports to foreign powers under unequal treaties.
  • Indo-China: France colonized Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia after a series of wars in the 19th century.
• Rise of Nationalism:
  • India: The Indian National Congress was founded in 1885.
  • China: Anti-foreign sentiments led to the Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901).

Economic Impact:

• Resource Exploitation
  • India: India’s share of the world economy fell from 23% (1700) to 3% (1947) due to the British drain of wealth. Millions of pounds were transferred from India to Britain as tribute and profits.
  • Drain of Wealth: According to Dadabhai Naoroji’s drain theory, India lost over €100 million annually to Britain during the colonial period, which contributed to widespread poverty.(€-Euro)
  • China: After the Opium Wars, China was forced to pay large indemnities to Britain, draining its resources.
  • Indonesia: The Dutch exploited Indonesia’s resources, particularly spices and rubber, for European profit.
• Industrial Decline:
  • Deindustrialization: British one way free trade policies destroyed Indian industries, especially textiles.
  • China: Chinese industries struggled due to the forced import of British goods after the Opium Wars.

Social and Cultural Impact:

• India: British education system (e.g., Macaulay’s reforms, 1835) promoted English over local languages.
• China: Western laws and customs were imposed through extraterritorial rights granted to European citizens.
• Westernization: European languages, laws, and institutions influenced local customs and traditions, leading to a hybrid culture in many parts of Asia.

Deforestation and Agricultural Degradation:

• Large-scale deforestation for tea, indigo, and cotton plantations. 
• Cash Crop Cultivation: Emphasis on cash crops like jute, indigo for export led to neglect of food crops, resulting in famines (e.g., Bengal famine).
  • Between 1850-1900, approximately 2.8 crore people died in famines
• Sri Lanka: British, Dutch, and Portuguese introduced large-scale tea and rubber plantations, transforming the island’s ecosystem.

Post-Colonial Conflicts:

• India: The Partition of India (1947), a direct consequence of British policies, resulted in mass violence and displacement.
• China: Foreign control during the Century of Humiliation (1839-1949) contributed to China’s internal unrest.
• Boundary Redrawing: Arbitrary borders drawn by colonizers led to future territorial conflicts (e.g., India-Pakistan, China-Tibet).

Positive Developments (Limited): Railway and Infrastructure:

• India: Introduction of railways, telecommunication, and postal services aided connectivity but were mainly designed for colonial exploitation.
•  The British built 67,000 km of railways by 1920, primarily to transport raw materials for export.
• Modern Banking: Establishment of modern banks like the Bank of Bengal (1806) and Bank of Bombay (1840) facilitated trade but primarily served British interests.