French Revolution (1789 A.D.)

French Revolution (1789 A.D.) was a major event in World History that began in France and changed the course of modern politics. It ended the monarchy and introduced the ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity, which inspired revolutions across the world.

French Revolution (1789 A.D.)

The French Revolution began in 1789 and lasted until 1799. 

• It was fueled by a combination of political corruption, feudal oppression, severe economic crisis, and the influence of Enlightenment thinkers like Rousseau and Voltaire. 
• Widespread social inequality and rising discontent among the Third Estate led to the collapse of the monarchy and the establishment of the French Republic. 
• The revolution introduced the ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity, reshaping not only France but also inspiring democratic movements across Europe and the world.

Circumstances Leading to the French Revolution

A. Defective Political System

1. Centralized Governance and Despotic Rule:
   • France had a hereditary monarchy where the king held absolute power.
   • Louis XIV embodied despotism with his statement, “I am the state.”
2. Incompetent Rulers:
   • Louis XV was a weak, luxury-loving ruler who failed to reform the administration.
   • Louis XVI was even more incompetent, heavily influenced by his wife Marie Antoinette. He was known for being disconnected from the suffering of the people.
3. Expensive Monarchy:
   • The king and his court lived in the lavish Palace of Versailles, far removed from Paris. Maintaining this luxury consumed huge amounts of public money.
4. Corrupt Judicial Process:
   • The French legal system was corrupt, expensive, and unfair. The king’s word was law, and there was no uniformity in the laws across France.
   • The king also had the power to arrest anyone using a lettre de cachet (an arbitrary warrant).
   • As Voltaire said, “Laws are changed as frequently as horses of a cart.”
5. Incompetent House of Representatives:
   • The Estates-General, a representative assembly of priests, nobles, and the general class, had not met since 1614, leaving the common people without a voice in governance.

B. Social Causes

1. Social Inequality:
   • French society was divided into three estates:
     • First Estate: Clergy.
     • Second Estate: Nobility.
     • Third Estate: Commoners (middle class, peasants, laborers etc).
   • The clergy and nobles enjoyed privileges, including tax exemptions, while the Third Estate bore the brunt of heavy taxes. 1% of the population controlled nearly 20% of the property .
   • Napoleon Bonaparte later acknowledged this social imbalance as a key cause of the revolution.
2. Exploitation of Farmers and Laborers:
   • Farmers paid about 80% of their income in taxes. They had no rights and were forced into unpaid labor for the upper classes.
   • Laborers were similarly exploited with low wages and long hours.
3. Middle-Class Discontent:
   • The middle class (merchants, teachers, and professionals) were wealthy and educated but lacked political power, which fueled their desire for equality with the upper classes.
4. Corruption in the Church:
   • The Catholic Church imposed religious taxes on ordinary people. 
   • The clergy led luxurious lives while lower-ranking priests lived in poverty, causing dissatisfaction even within the church.
5. Hereditary Privileged Class:
   • Higher positions in administration and law were reserved for the aristocrats, who used their authority for personal gain.

C. Economic Causes

1. Deplorable Economy:
   • France was deeply in debt due to costly wars, including the American Revolution and the Austrian War of Succession. 
   • The lavish spending by the monarchy and the privileged classes further drained the country’s finances.
2. Unfair Taxation System:
   • The Third Estate paid the majority of taxes, while the nobility and clergy were exempt. Taxes on salt, liquor, and tobacco were especially burdensome.
3. Unsuccessful Reforms:
   • Several ministers like Turgot, Necker, and Calonne tried to reform the financial system, but their efforts were blocked by the privileged classes and royal court.
     • Turgot’s reforms to abolish salt tax and privileges were rejected, leading to his dismissal. 
     • Necker was dismissed after revealing the lavish spending of the royal family.

D. Intellectual Awakening

1. Rise of Philosophers:
   • Intellectuals like Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu, and Diderot played a key role in the revolution. 
   • Voltaire advocated for the separation of church and state and opposed the corrupt monarchy.
     • Freedom of Speech and expression: In his Philosophical Dictionary, he said, “I may disagree with what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it.”
   • Montesquieu’s “The Spirit of the Laws” proposed the separation of powers  (executive, judiciary, legislature) to prevent despotism.
     • He showed that luxurious life of church is responsible for the corruption
   • Rousseau’s “The Social Contract” emphasized the legitimacy of government through the general will.
     • Rousseau’s words, “Man is born free but is everywhere in chains,” became a revolutionary slogan;
     • The revolutionary cry of “Liberty, Equality, Fraternity” reflects Rousseau’s ideals.
   • Robespierre believed that civic virtue, a commitment to the common good, was essential for a successful republic and the protection of individual rights. 
   • General Lafayette : Fought in american revolution → Inspired from democratic ideas

Major Events and Phases of the French Revolution

Summoning of the Estates General (May 5, 1789):

• Due to financial crises and resistance to new taxes, King Louis XVI was forced to call the Estates General, a body that hadn’t met since 1614.
• The Third Estate (common people) demanded individual voting rights rather than voting by estate, which created a standoff with the clergy and nobility.
• On June 17, 1789, the Third Estate (general class) declared themselves the National Assembly.
• When they arrived for the meeting on 20th June, the king closed and locked the assembly hall.

Tennis Court Oath (June 20, 1789):

• After being locked out of their meeting hall, the National Assembly gathered at a nearby Tennis Court.
• They took an oath to remain together until they had drafted a new constitution for France.

Formation of the National Assembly (June 27, 1789):

• The Third Estate declared itself the National Assembly, claiming to represent the French people. Eventually, the king ordered all estates to join the Assembly.

Fall of the Bastille (July 14, 1789):

• King Louis XVI dismiss Necker, leading to public outrage.
• On July 14, people stormed the Bastille Fortress, symbolizing the end of royal tyranny.
• The event marked the fall of the monarchy and the rise of revolutionary fervor. ➔ July 14 is celebrated as France’s National Day.

End of Privileges (August 4, 1789):

• On the night of August 4, the clergy and aristocrats voluntarily gave up their privileges.
• Feudal taxes were abolished, and government positions were opened to all.

Declaration of Human Rights (August 27, 1789):

• A charter of human rights was issued, outlining basic freedoms and equality for all citizens.
• Rights such as freedom of speech, religion, and private property were guaranteed.

Women’s Campaign (October 5, 1789):

• Around 6,000-7,000 women marched to Versailles, demanding bread and that the king return to Paris.
• This brought the monarchy under closer scrutiny from the revolutionaries.

Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790):

• The church was placed under state control, and clergy were required to swear an oath to the constitution. Those who refused were labeled “Non-Jurors”.

Constitution of 1791:

• The first written constitution limited the powers of the king and established a constitutional monarchy. 
• However, Louis XVI tried to flee France in 1791, leading to the further decline of the monarchy.

War with Austria and Prussia (1792):

• The National Assembly declared war on Prussia and Austria to prevent them from supporting the monarchy.

September Massacres (1792):

• After threats from the Prussian commander to free the king, revolutionaries attacked the palace, killing 800 royal guards.
• This violent episode led to the abolition of the monarchy and the rise of radical parties like the Jacobins.

National Convention and Execution of Louis XVI (1793):

• The National Convention was formed, and the Republic was established in September 1792.
• Jacobins and Girondists clashed over how to handle the monarchy and the future of France.
• The National Convention abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic. 
• King Louis XVI was tried and executed in January 1793, shocking monarchies across Europe.

Reign of Terror (1793-1794):

• Led by Robespierre and the Jacobins, the Reign of Terror saw mass executions of perceived enemies of the revolution using the guillotine. 
• Thousands were executed, including Queen Marie Antoinette.
• The Reign of Terror ended with the fall of Robespierre in July 1794.

Directory (1795-1799):

• The National Convention established the Directory, a five-member committee to govern France.
• The Directory struggled with internal corruption and rising unrest, leading to the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799.

Impact of the French Revolution

Impact on France

End of the Feudal System:

• The French Revolution completely abolished the feudal system, which was synonymous with economic exploitation.
• The principle of equality replaced the old hierarchical system.

Rise of Democratic Spirit:

• Hereditary monarchy was abolished, and republican governance was established.
• Now, rulers were accountable to the people, and sovereignty resided with the citizens.

Declaration of Human Rights:

• Key rights like freedom of expression, equality before the law, and security of property were established.
• These were recognized as natural rights, which could not be taken away by any ruler, challenging the authority of despotic regimes worldwide.

Secular State and Limiting Church Powers:

• Religious freedom became a fundamental right, and the state controlled religious matters.
• The Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790) brought the church under state control.
• Church lands were redistributed, and religion became a personal matter, separating it from the state.

Formation of Political Parties:

• The revolution brought political awareness to the masses, leading to the formation of parties like the: ➔ Girondists (more moderate) and the Jacobins (more radical). 
• Sovereignty now resided with the people, not the king (e.g., the National Convention ruled after the fall of the monarchy).

Beginning of Socialism:

• The revolution ended feudal privileges and redistributed land from the church to the peasants. 
• The Jacobin Party, under leaders like Maximilien Robespierre, pushed for social and economic equality. 

Educational Reforms:

• Education was separated from the control of the church and refocused on humanism, discipline, and nationalism.

Freedom, Equality, and Fraternity:

• The slogan “Liberty, Equality, Fraternity” became the driving force not only in France but throughout Europe.
• Freedom of writing and speech (e.g., the abolition of press censorship). 
• Equal opportunities in jobs (e.g., the merit-based civil service introduced by Napoleon in later years). 
• Equality before the law, replacing privileges of birth.

Beginning of Liberal Democracy:

• The revolution introduced liberalism (from the Latin word “liber,” meaning freedom), which emphasized: ➔ Governments formed by the consent of the people (e.g., France’s First Republic, 1792). 
• The parliamentary democracy model spread across Europe (e.g., reforms in Britain in 1832, influenced by French ideas). 
• In economics, liberalism fostered free trade and free markets (e.g., the abolition of internal trade barriers in France)

End of Monarchy and Rise of People’s Power:

• The French Revolution ended the monarchy and shifted sovereignty to the people.
• The French tricolor flag became a symbol of the people’s republic.
• The National Assembly replaced the Estates-General, representing the active citizens of France. (active citizens → male citizens who paid taxes).
• Army’s duty shifted from protecting the king to defending the nation.

Impact of the French Revolution on Women:

1. Educational Opportunities:
   • Girls were allowed to attend government schools and were provided with the right to professional training.
2. Marriage and Divorce Rights:
   • Women gained the right not to marry without their consent and received equal rights as men in seeking divorce.
3. Transitional Period for Women’s Liberation:
   • Women’s rights were progressing, but the Reign of Terror saw a backlash, with women’s clubs being closed.
   • Olympe de Gouges, a prominent women’s rights advocate, was executed for her opposition.
4. Symbolism in Art:
   • The ideals of freedom, equality, and fraternity were often symbolized through female figures: 
   • Justice was depicted as a woman holding scales and wearing a blindfold. 
   • Liberty was represented with a broken chain. 
   • The red cap(Phrygian cap) became a symbol of the republic and revolution.

Global Impact: Rise of Nationalism

1. The wave of French nationalism spread throughout Europe and inspired the unification of Italy (completed in 1861) and Germany (completed in 1871). 
2. It also led to resistance against Napoleon (e.g., the Peninsular War in Spain from 1808-1814). 
3. Later, nationalism inspired colonized countries to fight for independence (e.g., Latin American revolutions in the early 19th century).

The French Revolution had profound impacts on political systems, social structures, and individual rights. It ended feudalism, inspired nationalism, introduced democratic principles, and laid the foundation for modern secularism. Its effects extended beyond France, influencing revolutions and reforms across the globe.

Napoleon Bonaparte

Early Life & Military Career

• First Army Role: Appointed Lieutenant early in his career.
• Major Early Victory: Expelled British from Toulon Port (September 16, 1793 A.D.) → Protected National Assembly members → Proved himself as able and courageous → Promoted to head of artillery (1794 A.D.).

Rise to Power

• Internal Conflicts: On October 5, 1795, Napoleon suppressed a royalist rebellion → Appointed General of the Internal Army.
• Marriage: Married Josephine Beauharnais (an influential woman).
• Italy Campaign: Defeated Austria in Italy → Treaty of Campoformio (October 1797 A.D.) → France’s supremacy in Italy.
• Planned to defeat the British in India with the help of Marathas → Defeated by British naval commander Nelson at the Nile River (August 1798 A.D.).

Political Ascendancy in France

• Directory government loses popularity → Napoleon seizes the moment (1799 A.D.):
  • Quote: “The pear is ripe.”
  • Overthrows the Directory → Establishes Three Consuls system:
    • Napoleon himself becomes Chief Consul.
    • Key Reforms: Established peace, created a new constitution, and signed peace treaties.
• Emperor of France
  • 1802 A.D.: Napoleon becomes Consul for life.
  • December 2, 1804 A.D.: Crowned as Emperor of france.

Military Campaigns as Emperor

1. Battle of Trafalgar (October 21, 1805 A.D.): Defeated by British Admiral Nelson.
2. Battle of Austerlitz (December 2, 1805 A.D.): Defeated Austria and Prussia → Treaty of Pressburg → Formed the Rhine Confederation.
3. War with Prussia (October 14, 1806 A.D.): Defeated Prussia → Treaty of Rhine.
4. Invasion of Russia (June 14, 1807 A.D.): Defeated Russia at Freedland → Treaty of Tilsit.

Napoleon Reforms

1. Administrative Reforms:

• Centralization: France was divided into districts → Army officers appointed as governors.
• Reinforced Meritocracy: Introduced a system where talent and ability were more valued than noble birth → Broke the old aristocratic monopoly on power.

2. Economic Reforms:

• Bank of France (1800): Established for financial stability.
• Tax System: Taxes increased on liquor, salt, tobacco → Government controlled tax recovery.
• Trade and Transport: Streamlined transportation and distribution systems → Improved efficiency.

3. Religious Reforms (Concordat of 1801):

• State Control: Church placed under state control → Priests became salaried officials.
• Land Redistribution: Church lands returned to farmers.
• Catholicism: Declared the official religion of France.
• Freedom for Priests: Priests freed from jail after taking an oath of loyalty to the Constitution.
• Religious Flexibility for Power: Napoleon famously adapted to circumstances: “I am a Muslim in Egypt, a Catholic in France,” using religion strategically to maintain control.

4. Educational Reforms:

• Government Control: Napoleon oversaw teacher appointments → State-controlled universities.
• Education Structure: Divided into primary, secondary (Lycee), and higher education (universities).
• Secular Education: Religion separated from education → Focus on military training and discipline.

5. Napoleonic Code (1804):

• Simplified Laws: Abolished outdated laws → Introduced a unified legal system.
• Key Principles: Equality before the law, religious tolerance, personal property rights.
• Family Structure: Patriarchal family system → Father given supreme authority.
• Civil Rights: Legalized civil marriage and divorce → Clergy influence reduced.
• Labor Rights: Supported capitalists → Banned labor unions and favored mill owners over workers.

6. Impact on Social and Political Structures:

• Consolidation of Power: Centralized control in his hands → Napoleon’s position as Emperor effectively ended the republican experiment of the French Revolution.
• Reduced Feudalism: Abolished feudal privileges across much of Europe → Peasants gained more freedom and property rights.

Continental System (1806 A.D.)

• Goal: Defeat England by destroying its trade.
• Issued the Berlin Ordinance → Prohibited European countries from trading with England → England retaliated with “Order in Council” → Result: Continental system failed and hurt France’s economy.

Unauthorized Occupation of Spain:

• Removal of Bourbon Monarchy: Napoleon deposed Spain’s King Charles IV → Installed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as king.
• Nationalism in Spain: This act sparked fierce nationalism in Spain, leading to widespread resistance.
• Peninsular War: Spain, supported by other European powers, launched a long and draining war against Napoleon.
• Napoleon’s Reflection: He later admitted, “The Spanish ulcer destroyed me.”

Moscow Campaign (1812):

• Continental System: Russia became hostile due to the Continental System → Hurt Russia’s economy, especially feudal interests.
• Invasion of Russia: Napoleon invaded Russia after Tsar Alexander I withdrew from the Continental System.
• Harsh Winter: French forces were devastated by Russia’s winter and guerrilla tactics → Nearly 500,000 French soldiers perished.
• Fisher’s Analysis: Historian Fisher described it as a struggle between Napoleon’s ambition and Russia’s nationalist spirit.

War of Nations (Leipzig, 1813):

• Fourth Coalition: Sweden, Prussia, Austria, England, and Russia united to defeat Napoleon.
• Battle of Leipzig: Napoleon achieved his last victory in Dresden but was defeated at Leipzig.
• Exile to Elba (1814): After the Treaty of Fontainebleau, Napoleon relinquished the throne → Exiled to Elba with a pension.

Battle of Waterloo (1815):

• Return from Elba: Napoleon escaped from Elba and briefly regained power in France.
• Final Defeat: Defeated by the Allied forces at Waterloo on June 18, 1815.
• Exile to Saint Helena: Captured by the British, Napoleon was exiled to Saint Helena, where he spent his remaining years and died in 1821.

Main Causes of Napoleon’s Downfall:

1. Peninsular War (Spanish War):

• Spain’s resistance ignited nationalism across Europe → United opposition.
• France lost 300,000 soldiers in this war alone.

2. Continental System:

• Intended to cripple Britain’s economy → Resulted in trade disruption across Europe.
• Increased commodity prices → Hurt French economy.
• Alienated Russia and other allies → Sparked further conflicts.

3. Russian Campaign:

• Napoleon’s invasion of Russia was disastrous → Severe winter and guerrilla warfare decimated French troops.
• Saying: “The winter of Russia is never defeated” proved true in this campaign.

4. Humiliation of the Pope:

• Napoleon disrespected the Pope during his coronation → Alienated Catholics across Europe.
• Widespread Catholic opposition weakened Napoleon’s influence.

5. Strong British Navy:

• Britain’s naval supremacy, especially after the Battle of Trafalgar, undermined Napoleon’s Continental System.
• France’s economy and global trade were severely damaged by British blockades.

6. Forced Recruitment:

• Soldiers from various nations were forcibly recruited → Led to low morale and lack of unity in Napoleon’s army.

7. Rise of Nationalism:

• Nationalism surged in countries like Spain, Prussia, and Russia → Inspired widespread resistance to Napoleon’s domination.
• United European powers in their struggle against French rule.

8. Affection for Relatives:

• Napoleon installed his relatives as rulers (e.g., Joseph in Spain, Louis in Holland) → Led to incompetence and lack of loyalty.
• This nepotism contributed to weak leadership in key territories.

9. Continuous Wars:

• Napoleon’s constant wars drained resources, exhausted his army, and diminished public support.
• Historian Dr. Slovene commented that “Napoleon’s fall lay in the tiredness” of his soldiers and himself.

10. Temperamental Defects:

• Napoleon was highly ambitious and obstinate → Stopped taking advice from experienced advisors.
• He trusted only his own decisions, ignoring valuable input from his generals and allies.

11. Dictatorial Power:

• Napoleon established a dictatorship, strangling the republic → Repressed liberty and freedom of speech.
• Censorship on newspapers and bans on labor unions → Alienated the public and intellectuals.
• His rejection of the democratic ideals of the French Revolution alienated many supporters

Evaluation of Napoleon

• Positive Legacy: Napoleon modernized France, promoted legal equality (Napoleonic Code), and separated the church from the state.
• Downfall: His unyielding ambition, authoritarian rule, and overreach in military campaigns ultimately led to his downfall.
• Self-Assessment: Napoleon famously remarked, “I am the revolution. I ended the revolution,” summarizing both his rise and eventual betrayal of revolutionary ideals.