भारतीय राष्ट्रीय आंदोलन – विभिन्न चरण एवं धाराएँ

The Two-Nation Theory, leading to the partition of India in 1947, evolved through various stages influenced by political, social, and religious factors. It asserted that Muslims and Hindus were distinct nations and could not coexist in a single nation-state.

Evolution of two nation theory :

Growth of Communalism

• British Policy of Divide and Rule : After the 1870s government reversed its policy of repression of Muslims and, instead, decided to rally them behind the government through concessions, favours and reservations, and used them against nationalist forces. 
• Communalism in History Writing : the communal interpretation of Indian history portrayed the ancient phase as the Hindu phase and the medieval phase as the Muslim phase. 
• Side-effects of Socio-religious Reform Movements : Reform movements such as the Wahabi Movement among Muslims and Shuddhi among Hindus with their militant overtones made the role of religion more vulnerable to communalism.
• Side-effects of Militant Nationalism : For instance, Tilak’s Ganapati and Shivaji festivals and anti-cow slaughter campaigns created much suspicion. 
• Communal Reaction by Majority Community: Formation and first session of the Hindu Mahasabha.(1915)

Early Developments

• Anti-Congress Front (1887): Figures like Syed Ahmed Khan, supported by the government, opposed the Congress.
• Shimla Delegation (1906): Led by Agha Khan, demanded separate electorates and significant Muslim representation.

Rising Political Consciousness (Early 20th Century)

• All-India Muslim League (1906): Established to protect Muslim interests, advocating for political representation and safeguards.
• Separate Electorates (1909): Morley-Minto Reforms introduced separate electorates for Muslims. It institutionalised communal representation, heightening communal consciousness.
• Lucknow Pact (1916): Congress accepted separate electorates, legitimizing the Muslim League as a separate political entity.
• Khilafat Movement (1920-22): Highlighted communal elements in Muslim political outlook.
• Nehru Report (1928): Opposed by Muslim hardliners and the Sikh League, leading to Jinnah’s fourteen points demanding separate electorates.
• Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-34): Limited Muslim participation compared to earlier movements.
• Communal Award (1932): Accepted all Muslim communal demands.

Development of the Theory (1920s-1930s)

• Muhammad Iqbal: In 1930, proposed the idea of a separate Muslim state in northwest India to preserve Muslim identity.
• Muhammad Ali Jinnah: Became the Muslim League leader, arguing that Muslims were a separate nation with distinct political interests.

Demand for Pakistan (1940s)

• Shift to Extreme Communalism (After 1937): After the Muslim League performed badly in the 1937 provincial elections, it decided to resort to extreme communalism. 
• Pakistan Resolution (1940): Passed by the Muslim League, demanding an independent Pakistan.
• World War II: British concessions gave the League a virtual veto, which it used to stick to its demand for Pakistan.

Path to Partition (1946-1947)

• Direct Action Day (1946): Led to communal riots, showing deep divisions and making a united India seem impossible.
• Mountbatten Plan (1947): British decision to partition India, creating India and Pakistan.